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FROM THE THEORY OF SEARCH TO THE PRACTICE

Akulov Nikolay Ivanovich ¹

Информация об авторах и главе

Авторы:

1. Institute of the Earth’s Crust SB RAS

Тип:

Глава

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.26526/chapter_62021f62682237.01275535

Страницы с - по

34 - 44

Издатель:

AUS PUBLISHERS

Язык материала:

английский

Ключевые слова:

diamonds, deposits, Basaltoids, Impactites, Tuffisites, Metamorphites, Lamproites, Kimberlites, placers, Angarida

Аннотация и ключевые слова

Аннотация (русский):
The book contains materials on the search for modern and buried alluvial and primary deposits of diamonds. Much attention is paid to prospecting testing of potentially diamondiferous deposits and provides information on all types of diamondiferous rocks currently known. It is addressed primarily to young geologists who have embarked on a search for diamond deposits. It will find the answer to many questions by many geologists, prospectors and prospectors, leading the search for gold and diamonds. While this information product, for the most part, is in the public domain, it also may contain copyrighted materials as noted in the text. Permission to reproduce copyrighted items must be secured from the copyright owner.

Ключевые слова:
diamonds, deposits, Basaltoids, Impactites, Tuffisites, Metamorphites, Lamproites, Kimberlites, placers, Angarida

Текст

Modern diamond prospecting is impossible without knowledge of the laws governing the change in diamond-bearing formations in the hypergenesis zone. 4.1. Weathering crust of kimberlites The formation of the weathering crust of diamondiferous rocks is due to the influence of the environment (water, atmosphere, solar insolation, temperature, life of various organisms, including plants and fungi). Meteoric water and ambient temperature play a major role in weathering. Therefore, the elementary weathering process should be considered in the water-rock interaction system. Practically distilled rain (melt) water is very “aggressive”. Therefore, seeping through the rock, it gradually imbibes (leaches) its mineral components. In this case, an increase in the mineralization of meteoric water occurs, which leads to a weakening of its chemical activity and, accordingly, to attenuation of the leaching processes. An example is the crust of chemical weathering on the shores of the lake Baikal and in the south of the Siberian Platform (Akulov et al., 1992; 1996). In this regard, the winding crust profile is formed from top to bottom. On the surface of such a profile, developed along the granitoids of Khamar-Daban, there is an intensely weathered zone, represented by a member of white kaolinite clays. And its weakly weathered lower part by disintegrated granitoids with spots of iron and manganese hydroxides. The conditions of their formation and the duration of weathering are important factors contributing to the weathering of diamondiferous rocks. Rocks formed at great depths, where high temperature and pressure prevail, and then brought to the surface, fall into completely different thermodynamic conditions, which leads to their destruction. The age of the kimberlite bodies of the Yakutian diamond province is from 350 to 430 Ma, which indicates the possibility of prolonged weathering. Therefore, it is not surprising that kimberlites are considered the least resistant rocks to weathering processes. According to N. N. Zinchuk et al. (Zinchuk et al., 1997) and E.A. Shamshina (1979), three zones are distinguished on kimberlites. The upper almost 30-meter zone of strongly weathered kimberlites is represented by grayish-brownish-yellow lumpy clay impregnated with iron hydroxides, in which the structural and textural features of the original rock are not preserved, but a clay mass composed of kaolinite, hydromica and montmorillonite. The middle one which is almost 100-meter hydromica-montmorillonite zone consists of brownish-gray moderately weathered kimberlites, in which relict structures are preserved, but obscured by clayey new formations colored with iron hydroxides. The lower one is composed of slightly altered greenish-gray, strongly cemented rocks, in which the structural and textural features of kimberlites are almost completely preserved (Fig. 13). Fig. 13. Lithological and mineralogical section of the weathering crust on one of the kimberlite pipes explored by boreholes (built using the Zinchuk data et al., 1997): 1 - kimberlites, 2 - weakly weathered kimberlites, 3 - strongly weathered kimberlites, 4 - picroilmenite, 5 - leucoxene, 6 - micas and amphiboles, 7 - apatite and epidote, 8 - garnets, 9 - tourmaline, 10 - zircon, 11 - resistant minerals led by diamond, 12 - hydromica, 13 - kaolinite, 14 - montmorillonite. It is important to note that picroilmenite (up to 40%) and garnets (up to 25%) remain in the composition of the minerals of the heavy fraction of the upper weathering zone. This is due to their resistance to weathering. The stability of minerals is determined by their mechanical strength and chemical resistance. A. A. Kukharenko (1961) suggested using the following scheme to compare the minerals of rocks by their stability in the hypergenesis zone (Table 1). FIg. 14. The classical scheme of the formation of the weathering crust in tectonically inac-tive areas (according to N. M. Strakhov, 1962): 1 - fresh rock, 2 - grit zone, chemically slightly altered, 3 - hydromica-montmorillonite-beidellite zone, 4 - kaolinite zone, 5 - ocher, aluminum oxides, 6 - clivvy, iron and aluminum oxides. N. M. Strakhov (1962) constructed a very graphic diagram on the formation of the weathering crust on ancient platforms, on which he showed that it reaches its maximum values on cratons with a humid and hot climate (Fig. 14). These paleoclimatic conditions prevailed on the Siberian platform 350-370 mln. years ago, when, according to the theory of continental drift, the Siberian craton was located in the tropical climatic zone (Khramov, 1991). Thus, if a kimberlite body was located for a long time in the hypergenesis zone, then it turns into a plastic mud-like grayish-brownish-yellow clay, which is a good aquiclude. Usually, the diatreme has a rounded shape in plan, and under the influence of exogenous processes its caldera often turns into a rounded lake. There is a legend about the discovery of one of the kimberlite pipes in South Africa. It was as if an African had weaved a hut out of branches and coated it with yellow clay, which lies near the hut on the shore of a rounded (caldera) lake. The clay dried up and the sun shone brightly small colorless minerals, which later turned out to be diamonds. Table 1 Unstable Moderately stable Sustainable Very stable Olivine Pyroxene Augite Vesuvian Hornblende Pyrite Cinnabar Melanitis Apatite Diopside Ortit Pomegranates (pyrope) Actinolite Tremolite Epidote Zoisite Wolframite Scheelite Ottrelite Axinite Barite Sillimanite Anataz Stavrolite Distin Ilmenite (picroilmenite) Hematite Sfen Titanomagnetite Magnetite Monazite Xenotime Perovskite Columbite Cassiterite Andalusite Topaz Brookit Leucoxen Chrome spinellide Rutile Tourmaline Gold Platinum Osmous iridium Spinel Zircon Corundum Diamond Stability of minerals during weathering (according to A. A.Kukharenko, 1961) Note: the increasing resistance of minerals to weathering is shown in the columns from top to bottom. N. A. Shilo (2002) investigated the migration properties of placer-forming minerals and found that due to their properties (increased density, hardness, chemical stability in a wide alkaline-acid range, etc.). They are accumulated in certain deposits, thus determining the concentration of ore matter above the clarke values. He proposed to use the accumulative indicator as a constant of hypergene stability (Chs), which takes into account the hardness of minerals, the energy state of the structure of minerals (H), and their density (). Chs = lg (H) According to his data, Chs for diamond and zircon is 1.54, for gold - 1.66, and for picro-ilmenite - 1.41. For comparison, quartz, which is one of the most widespread placer minerals, has Chs = 1.26. Quartz serves as a range mark, above which Chs are located for most placer-forming minerals, the amount of which is about 50. In the process of weathering, stable and partially stable minerals accumulate in the zone of destruction of the original outlet, forming eluvial deposits, represented by accumulations of minerals at the site of destruction. Their further transportation by temporary water flows leads to the formation of spoon placers, and their merging with river flows contributes to the formation of various types of near-drift placers. Coastal placers are formed in the deltas of rivers flowing into large lakes or seas. It should be noted that the products of the redeposited weathering crust have an “inverted” rhythm with respect to the original weathering crust, which occurs in situ and is easily recognized in the field. At the bottom of such a section, there is usually a fine-grained or pelitic material, and at the top it is coarse-grained, often transformed into conglobreccias. An example is the redeposited products of the Lower Carboniferous weathering crust developed in the southwestern part of the Siberian platform near the Yenisei Ridge. Here, on the eroded surface of Devonian carbonate rocks, kaolin-rich mudstones of the “flint clay” type occur, which transform up the section into quartz sandstones, and then into a thick 25-meter member of conglobreccias. It should be noted that until 1960, the main production of diamonds fell on dewy deposits. Shiny crystals in river sand and pebble deposits attract the attention of not only geologists. Many diamond-bearing placers have been discovered by children. Thus, the first Ural diamond was found by a serf Pavel Popov in 1829. In South Africa, on the banks of the Orange and Vaal rivers, the children of farmers found the first diamond crystals. Despite the apparent ease of development of alluvial diamond deposits, their miners always face one big drawback i.e. fast areal mining of alluvial deposits. This is due to the fact that the construction of a MPP (a) on the basis of an open field, in the hard-to-reach conditions of Siberia, becomes profitable in the case when there are enough explored reserves and will last for at least 30 years of its operation. This requirement is usually met by the discovery of a primary deposit. In this regard, the primary task of geologists is to find the primary source of diamonds. Thirty years have passed and this task has been solved, which was facilitated by the numerous previously discovered diamond-bearing placers. After 1990, almost 80% of the world's diamond production was produced from primary deposits. At present, in Russia, despite the abundance of dews, more than 95% of diamonds are mined from primary deposits (On state..., 2018). 4.2. Types of diamond placers and tasks of the first stage of their search V. P. Afanasyev and colleagues (Afanasyev et al., 1984, 2008, 2010) carried out an experimental study of the abrasive resistance of diamond and its companions - pyrope, picroilmenite, olivine, apatite, as well as fragments of diamondiferous kimberlites. The following series of their decreasing abrasion resistance was obtained: pyrope-picroilmenite-apatite-olivine-kimberlite. The diamond practically did not change during the experiment. Fragments of kimberlite turned out to be quite stable, and their relics survived almost until the end of the experiment, while all satellite minerals acquired the form of wear. Pyrope, olivine and apatite are characterized by oval wear type. Picroilmenite forms tablets with hexagonal outlines typical of ancient halos. The ratio of the abrasive resistance of pyrope and picroilmenite showed that in coastal marine conditions, picroilmenite is completely abraded, while rounded pyrope and diamonds are preserved. In this case, a stable diamond-pyrope mineralogical association is formed with an insignificant admixture of chrome spinellides, which are smaller in size than pyropes and diamonds. Mechanical changes were noted in diamond crystals due to their chipping, abrasion of edges and tops (Afanasyev, 1989). The main features of schlichineralogical analysis indicate that clastic material, or as it is called terrigenous material from erosion of kimberlite pipes, is found only in those watercourses that drain them, while the distribution of minerals of diamond satellite dikes is linear (scattering flux). According to V. I. Vaganov and his colleagues (Vaganov et al., 2002), placer diamonds make up a small (about 10%) part of the world production of natural the importance of placer deposits. Among the known industrial alluvial diamond deposits, the following main genetic types stand out: alluvial, deluvial-proluvial (including karst depressions), and coastal-marine. In Yakutia, deluvial and alluvial (terrace and valley) diamond deposits are widely developed. They were formed in the process of long-term destruction and redeposition of bedrock diamond-bearing kimberlite rocks. Among the valley placers, there are trailing, alluvial and channel ones. The second region in terms of the size of exploited diamond-bearing placers is located in the Northern Urals. The Ural placers were formed as a result of the destruction of diamond-bearing tuffisites. The Arkhangelsk Oblast is the third alluvial diamondiferous area, which was discovered relatively recently and is located within the primary deposits of diamondiferous kimberlites. Let us note the main features of these processes without dwelling on the characteristics of the transport mechanisms and the concentration of placer-forming minerals in various environments, which are discussed in detail in the following works: A. A. Kukharenko (1961), B. I. Prokopchuk (1979), B. N. Sokolov (1982), S. S. Voskresensky (1985), Yu. A. Burmin (1988), V. E. Minorin (2001), N. A. Shilo (2002), A.A. Kremenetsky with colleagues (2006), S. A. Grakhanov with colleagues (2007), N. G. Patyk-Kara (2008), O. K. Kilizhekov with colleagues (2017). The main mechanism for the formation of placers is their separation by size (mass), density and chemical stability. The last two indicators are taken into account by the constant of hypergene stability, which makes it possible to compare the migration ability of minerals of equal, mainly sandy dimension. It is noted that the same mineral, depending on the granulometric class in which it is located, has a different migration ability. The migration ability of diamonds is also influenced by the shape of the crystals and hydrophobicity. Two tendencies on the way of their migration along with indicator minerals or minerals-satellites from the primary source are well recognized: on the one hand, gradual destruction, abrasion and dispersal, and on the other hand, this is the removal of unstable minerals along the path of their long-distance transport and the formation of new ones. stable terrigenous-mineralogical associations. Thanks to this, the concept of the genetic category of the placers is autochthonous and allochthonous, as well as local and regional. According to the degree of their remoteness from the primary sources of diamonds, they are subdivided into placers of near drift and long-range transport (redeposited). The first group includes eluvial-deluvial and alluvial placers. They are characterized by a high concentration of diamonds, and in the areas of karst distribution they give large and sometimes unique deposits.Вторая группа россыпей алмазов представлена россыпями, удаленными от источни-ка питания на десятки — сотни километров; среди них преобладают озерно-морские (рос-сыпи конечных водоемов), аллювиальные и ледниковые. G. Kh. Feinstein (1977) divided secondary sedimentary diamond collectors into 3 groups according to the distance of transfer of fragmentary material into 3 groups: 1) the nearest transport (0-5 km); 2) short-range transport (5-30 km) and 3) long-range transport (more than 30 km). He writes that the distance of up to 5 km from the power source for sedimentary reservoirs of the nearest transfer was established using the example of modern spoon and Rhaetian-Lias placers of diamonds in Yakutia, as well as placers of titanium ores (ilmenite placers). According to S. A. Grakhanov and V. I. Koptil (Grakhanov and Koptil, 2003), the transfer of diamonds downstream or along the coast can be traced for many hundreds of kilometers. For example, they managed to trace a halo of diamonds coming from the Pipe Mir along the Irelyakh-Mal water system, Botuobia - Vilyui at a distance of more than 500 km. These two types of placers differ significantly not only in the mechanism of concentration of useful minerals, but also in terms of feeding the placer-forming process. So, near-drift placers represent a local result, often of a relative concentration along the path of the closest scattering of diamonds. These are scattering streams or mechanical halos of a local root source. Long-range transfer placers are formed without a visible connection with a specific primary source as a result of prolonged, usually multiple redeposition of clastic material, often through intermediate reservoirs, accompanied by its perfect separation. Long-range transport placers are well preserved in the composition of fossil alluvial formations. All currently known diamondiferous placers, according to one or another feature (morphological, genetic, morphogenetic, dynamic, etc.), are divided into a number of types of placers. In our opinion, the most important feature that allows one to clearly distinguish diamond placers in the field is the genetic one. In nature, there are many genetic types of terrigenous deposits, to which diamond-bearing placers are confined. Thus, the genetic types of terrigenous formations containing diamonds also determine the genetic type of diamondiferous placers. Among them, there are proluvial, colluvial, eluvial-deluvial, alluvial, lacustrine, coastal-marine and other less significant genetic types. Fig. 15. The sequence of exploration work on alluvial gold-bearing and diamond-bearing placers (according to A. S. Ageikin et al., 1982 as amended): Stage: a - general search, b - preliminary reconnaissance, c - detailed reconnaissance; 1 - alluvial deposits, 2 - bedding rocks, 3 - edge of the erosional-accumulative terrain, 4 - exploratory lines, 5 - areas with established industrial gold content. It should be noted that in terms of diamond reserves in the world among the Cenozoic placers (without Russia), the first place is occupied by deluvial-karst placers (more than 60% of reserves), the second place belongs to alluvial placers, and the third place belongs to various types of coastal-marine placers and open shelf (Dictionary on Geology ..., 1985). Among the main tasks that have to be solved at the first stage of the search for diamonds, first of all, it is necessary to find out in the studied deposits at least single grains of heavy diamond concentrates (HDC): pyropes, olivines, moissanite, chrome diopsides, picroilmenites, chromites, etc. Solution of this task is possible only with knowledge of the main laws governing the formation of various genetic types of diamond placers, on the basis of which it is necessary to make a local forecast of the most favorable potentially diamondiferous areas (geological bodies) and carry out their preliminary sampling. If HDC is found, the studied deposits are subjected to detailed sampling in order to establish the length, width and thickness of the open placer, as well as the average diamond content in them. It is interesting to note that during the open development of the Pipe Mir, it was experimentally established that one ton of kimberlite contains about 20 kg of indicator minerals, including more than five kilograms of chromium-containing pyrope. Such kimberlite pipes form an HDC plume near them, which made it possible to detect it. A geologist walking along the river channel in the footsteps of the HDC will certainly come to the kimberlite pipe. The sequence of exploration work on alluvial placers is conventionally shown in Fig. 15. It should be emphasized that diamond in placer samples is extremely rare, since the volume of one such sample is only 10-15 liters of sand-and-shingle or argillo-arenaceous material, and not every cubic meter of diamond-bearing deposits or weathered kimberlite contains at least one crystal diamond. This means that it is practically impossible to search for both primary and alluvial diamond deposits by the appearance of crystals of this mineral in concentrates. For these purposes, small-volume sampling is carried out or the main attention is focused on heavy diamond concentrates: blood-red pyrope, pitch-black picroilmenite and emerald-green chrome diopside (Fig. 16). Searches for kimberlite pipes using schlich sampling along the scattering halos of diamond satellite minerals are widely known in the geological literature (Zinchuk et al., 2004) and, in principle, do not present any particular difficulties. They are very vividly and colorfully described and demonstrated in photographs in the monograph by A.M. Khmelkov (2008). Fig. 16. Heavy diamond concentrates: blood-red pyrope from the Mir pipe and emerald-green chrome diopside from the Inagli massif on Aldan (photo by A. A. Yevseyev). Starting from the earliest prospecting works for diamonds, it was found that rivers, streams and channels are the most favorable for schlich sampling (Burov, 1957). Sampling is usually carried out at intervals of about 1 km and in the direction from the mouth to the source of the river. After washing the schlich sample, the geologist is obliged to carefully study it in order to detect blood-red pyropes or other visually recognizable satellite dikes of diamonds. As he moves along the river to its upper reaches, the researcher finds himself in the province of feeding the river channel with terrigenous material. If the amount of pyrope in the concentrates increases and their size increases, then it is on the right track to the kimberlite pipe. When the schlichs are washed out above the area of the removal of terrigenous components from the kimberlite body, pyropes and other satellite dikes of diamonds abruptly disappear. In this case, it is necessary to study in detail the places of schlich sampling of the valley slopes or tributaries of the river located between the last “empty” sample and the penultimate one with pyropes. Thus, it is possible to find both primary (kimberlite) bodies and ancient intermediate diamond collectors. The ultimate goal of prospecting is to identify an industrial primary or placer diamond deposit. 4.3. Criteria and signs of diamond-bearing placers The criteria and features of diamondiferous placers make it possible to judge the prospects of this or that territory for the discovery of placer diamondiferousness. The basis for their identification is a systematic analysis of the main prerequisites for the formation of diamond placers. To date, it has been established that the most important criteria indicating that the territory is promising for prospecting for alluvial diamonds are: 1) the presence of primary sources of diamonds in the area under study; 2) the presence in the section of sedimentary strata of stratigraphic horizons, the time of formation of which corresponds to the erosion and denudation of the primary diamond sources (epochs of placer formation); 3) paleogeographic conditions for the formation of potentially diamondiferous deposits (type of sedimentation basin or weathering crust and products of its redeposition); 4) sources of nutrition for sedimentary paleobasins, as well as the type and conditions of transportation of terrigenous material (features of the formation, transformation and conservation of placers). Along with the search criteria, uniting consistent, statistically stable indicators, a huge role is played by less stable indicators - signs of diamond-bearing placers. Prospecting signs of diamond placers include: 1) the presence of an erosion-denudation cut of the primary source (kimberlite pipe or buried placer) of diamonds in the study area; 2) finds of fragments of bedrocks (kimberlites) in terrigenous deposits; 3) the presence of heavy diamond concentrates in rudaceous fractions; 4) information about the finds of diamonds among the alluvial deposits of the study area. In addition to the listed criteria and features, diamond-bearing placers have a number of characteristic features that determined their formation. These features are based, firstly on the behavior of diamonds in the process of transfer and sedimentation, as well as on data on the structure and composition of the enclosing and underlying rocks. These characteristic features include the following: 1) confinement of diamond-bearing placers to rudaceous deposits (granulometric factor); 2) close connection of the most diamond-enriched terrigenous material with near-bedrock layers (factor of high specific gravity); 3) the presence of enriched zones among the redeposited products of the weathering crust (a factor of high diamond stability); 4) the ability of diamonds to form placers of long-range drift and multiple redeposition, due to their high hardness and hydrophobicity (physical and mechanical factor); 5) geomorphological features of the site, which direct the formation of the placer, including control of the basis of erosion, areas of avalanche discharge of terrigenous material (geomorphological factor).

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