Аннотация (русский):
The monograph is devoted to the problem of effective incentives for personnel as one of the most acute in the theory and practice of modern management. The paper considers the main stages of labor incentives , the specifics of personnel management from the standpoint of a motivational approach, suggests ways to assess the quality of incentive systems, analyzes the motivational structure of the employee's personality. The definitions, classifications, typologies and models proposed in the monograph can be used not only for educational and methodological purposes, but also in the direct practice of personnel management. The monograph is addressed to specialists in personnel management, students, graduate students, teachers, as well as everyone who is interested in the field of HR management.

Ключевые слова:
Management, labor incentives, personnel, motivation, personnel management

DESIGNING QUALITATIVE PERSONNEL INCENTIVES SYSTEMSIN ORGANIZATIONS

 

3.1. Pre-project study of labor incentive systems

It should be noted that the above parameters of the equivalence of social exchange cannot exist as single, independent phenomena.

It is rather difficult to identify which needs are leading in the motivational process of a particular person in certain conditions and constitute a motivational complex. After all, the needs themselves are in a complex constantly changing interaction and can contradict each other. However, in any situation and any person there are motives that direct and orient him. The predominance of certain reference points in activity influences the choice of an individual's behavior. «In a person there is, of course, a certain unchanging core, that is, those of his features that leave an imprint on all his behavior. Based on them, some are guided mainly by material incentives, others are guided by a sense of duty, and still others try to avoid criticism»[1].

There can be a huge number of similar goals and motives, and the choice of means and ways to achieve them directly depends on their nature, which allows us to talk about the presence of various types of behavior in the organization. Knowledge of the landmarks of a person's activity, his motives, needs and expectations makes it possible to form the labor behavior of personnel that is appropriate for the organization with the help of stimulating influence.

It should be noted that the elements of labor activity, which determine its effectiveness, exist as interrelated and interdependent. The fundamental element, along with the system of employee expectations and the system of assessment criteria, can be considered the motivational structure of the personality, since it has the strongest influence on human behavior in the organization.

In this case, what could be simpler than to study the characteristics of the employee's personality, his needs and offer him what he wants, and in return get the expected result? Moreover, there are techniques necessary for this.

 Among the most famous: the tests of Kettel, Rorschach, the methods of Eysenck, Kucher, the test-questionnaire of the achievement motivation of A. Mehrabyan, the diagnosis of personality for the motivation for success of T. Ehlers.

I.G. Kokurina[2]offers an interesting method for studying work motivation.The methodology is based on the concept of two main semantic orientations:

1) procedural orientation, in which a person's activity is within a limited framework of activity;

2) the resulting orientation, which suggests a higher level of activity. It is the focus on results that allows you to go beyond the scope of activities.

The labor motive itself is understood as «the process of filling the most significant labor incentives with meanings, as a result of which a structure emerges in the form of a hierarchy of meaning-forming motives, capable of exerting a reverse influence on the labor behavior of an individual».[3]

The questionnaire is composed of texts that contain categories of interest to the researcher, in particular, certain motivational orientations.

The subject is asked to choose one of the two definitions that are closest to him in meaning. For example, «money is:

1) a means that gives a person the opportunity to satisfy their interests and hobbies in addition to the profession;

2) payment for work, which you share with people close to you».

 

Content and interpretation of the components of labor motivation

Motivation type
Resulting orientation	Procedural orientation
1. Transformative motive
Focus on getting results for the sake of the result itself	Activity orientation for the sake of the process itself, the achievement of mastery
2. Communicative motive
Orientation to active interaction with others, to communication at work, to helping another person	Focus on maintaining positive relationships with others
3. Utilitarian-pragmatic motive
Orientation on the use of their labor to meet other needs that are not hard to do	Focus on work as a waste of energy, striving to maintain health in work
4. Cooperative motive
Orientation - to consider your work from the point of view of its social usefulness, necessity for other people, for society as a whole	Orientation - to consider your work in terms of its usefulness for relatives and friends
5. Competitive motive
Orientation - to be better than others, to have high prestige, authority	Orientation - to be no worse than others, to be like everyone else
6. Motive of achievement
Orientation on overcoming obstacles, the desire to set super tasks for yourself	Focus on self-improvement, on the development of their abilities

 

A total of 108 questions (pairs of statements) are proposed, divided into three groups:

• attitude to money;

• attitude to team;

• attitude to work.

E.A. Kupriyanov and A.G. Shmelev and his co-workers propose a methodology for studying the structure of labor motivation, which is based on the factor structure of labor motives.

Based on the results of the technique, it is possible to determine the orientation of the subject to:

1) involvement in the labor process;

2) material well-being;

3) interest (in the process itself, in the content of labor);

4) self-realization;

5) power;

6) public importance;

7) autonomy of labor;

8) working conditions;

9) career;

10) recognition;

11) health and safety[4].

 

The approach of S.V. Ivanova, who suggests using projective questions in assessing the level of motivation using specially developed «maps of motivators» and situational interviews[5].Let's give an example of projective questions.

Projective questions

	Projective question	Estimated factor
1	What motivates people to work most effectively?	Motivation
2	What attracts people to work?	Motivation
3	What can make a person quit?	Motivation
4	Which team is the most productive? What are the most comfortable relationships in the team for employees?	Team preferences
5	Why do people want to be successful in their careers?	Motivation for career growth
6	In what situations is it okay to lie?	Allowing cheating and assessing honesty
7	Imagine this situation: an employee has worked in the company for a probationary period, he is completely satisfied with the management, but at the same time decides to leave. Think about what it is connected with.	Motivation + unacceptable moments for a person at work
8	Even in the absence of a leader and control from his side, employees work effectively. Why?	Motivation + loyalty to work and company
9	What kind of workers are most often recruited for good positions?	Model of success
10	What should be a good employee?	Model of success and expectations
11	What should be a good leader?	Understanding leadership style

                                                                                                          

Another assessment technique was proposed by S. Ritchie and P. Martin and was named «Motivational Profile». It allows you to assess motivation in the following positions:

1) high earnings and material incentives;

2) physical working conditions;

3) structuring (organization of time, predictability, developed business communications, etc.);

4) social contacts;

5) relationships;

6) recognition;

7) striving for achievements;

8) power and influence;

9) diversity and change;

10) creativity (independence, creativity);

11) self-improvement;

12) interesting and useful work[6].

The All-Russian Center for the Study of Public Opinion under the leadership of Academician T.I. Zaslavskaya developed a methodology that involves the study of attitudes towards work and the motives of work.[7].

The research was carried out in three main directions: motives of main employment, motives of additional employment and motives of changing jobs.

1. The motives of the main employment. When studying labor motivation, a scale was used, which consists of four main levels:

• the lowest level of labor motivation, when work is an unpleasant duty for the employee and, if there was an opportunity, he would not work at all;

• work is viewed by a specialist almost exclusively as a source of livelihood;

• work is recognized as important, but not so much as to overshadow other areas of life;

• the highest level of labor motivation, which implies that work for the respondents is important and interesting, regardless of pay.

In their pure form, these levels of motivation do not occur. Usually they are present in some combination, although for each period and under certain economic conditions, a predominance of one or another type of labor motivation is characteristic.

This technique involves the subdivision of specialists into groups of signs and the level of labor motivation. The most important is the professional and job status of workers, followed by gender and age characteristics.

2. Motives for additional employment:

• the desire to increase income from the main job;

• desire to get a stable job and extra earnings at the additional job;

• desire to have an interesting job and the opportunity to fully realize their abilities and skills;

• make the necessary acquaintances and business connections.

This line of research identifies respondents who do not need additional earnings, as well as those who experience difficulties in finding additional earnings.

3. Motives for changing jobs:

• unfavorable working conditions and incomplete use of the labor potential of the respondents;

• poor or harmful working conditions;

• dissatisfaction with wages at the main place of work;

• uninteresting work, inability to make a career;

• potential turnover and abandonment due to fears that the business will be closed and the employee will remain unemployed;

• motives for changing the profession or workplace;

• higher earnings;

• more pleasant, interesting work;

• good conditions with a comfortable working regime;

• the desire to get a profession for which there is now a great demand and for which it is easier to find a job;

• change of profession or professional development in order to stay in your enterprise, to avoid dismissal.

We can say with confidence that there are various methods of studying work motivation. But even knowledge of the revealed logic of the stimulation process, alas, cannot guarantee success in managing this process. Why? Because an important determinant here is the non-obviousness of most of the motives for the behavior of an individual in general and an employee of an organization, in particular. One can only assume which motives prevail in which cases, but it is still quite difficult to determine and identify them in a specific form.

It is very difficult to identify which needs are leading in the motivational process of a particular person in certain conditions. After all, the needs themselves are in a complex constantly changing interaction and therefore they may even contradict each other. By virtue of this, to assert that a person is always rational in his actions is not correct and unreasonable. Indeed, the very concept of «exchange» refers to voluntary actions that are due to reciprocal rewards. But people in the process of their professional activities are able to be guided not only by an orientation towards their own interests, «but they can also be guided by other aspirations - altruism, a sense of justice, conformity to status, etc.»[8]. And not every work activity is an exclusively voluntary choice of an individual. This choice is free and voluntary within the framework of the prevailing social conditions.

In modern management practice, various motivational types are distinguished.

One of the classification features is the ratio in the hierarchy of motives of individuals of motives-achievement, and motives-avoidance (motivational typology of Vladimir Isakovich Gerchikov)[9].

Achievement motivation means that an employee with such motivation strives to achieve something, deserve, earn, improve labor results, increase its efficiency and quality. Avoidance motivation means that a person works out of fear, since he does not want punishment, manifestations of discontent from the authorities.

Thus, there are five motivational types:

1.instrumental motivational type. The employee is interested in the amount of earnings and other benefits received as remuneration for work, the desire to ensure a high social and living standard for himself and his family.

2.professional motivational type. The employee is interested in the content of the work (interestingness, variety), the opportunity to prove himself, focus on continuous professional improvement. Salary is viewed by such employees as an indicator of how much the company's management values ​​its knowledge and professionalism.

3.patriotic motivational type. The employee is interested in participation in the implementation of a common cause, recognition of his participation in common significant achievements, is distinguished by his conviction in the need for an organization and a willingness to take on additional responsibility, if necessary.

4. master's motivational type. The employee is characterized by fully assumed personal responsibility, striving for maximum independence. (Typical for entrepreneurs, not employees).

5. employee with avoidant motivation. The employee is characterized by the desire to minimize his labor efforts, the lack of desire for promotion. (But such workers are also needed).

 

                 Another classification criterion for determining motivational types was the degree of job satisfaction and commitment to the organization.

                 Job satisfaction[10] – it is a pleasant positive emotional state based on the assessment of their work and resulting from the perception by the employees themselves of how fully the work provides important, from their point of view, needs.

                 Organization commitment[11] – it is the degree of psychological identification with the organization, when the employee shares and makes his own goals of the organization and its values.

                 From this position, a study was conducted by Taylor Nelson Sofres (TNS) in 33 countries. (An analytical agency engaged in market research and has offices in 80 countries around the world). 20,000 full-time people were surveyed. The data obtained allowed us to distinguish four types of employees, differing in the degree of commitment to the company and the degree of job satisfaction:

1. «career-oriented workers»;

2. «enthusiasts»;

3. «dissatisfied»;

4. «company-oriented».

Another technique for analyzing labor motivation was a technique that allows one to assess the ratio of external and internal motives in the motivational structure of an employee. The basis for the analysis of the motivational structure of the personality of employees was an empirical sociological study of the motives for work of employees of commercial organizations (see: Appendix 1), built on a survey of employees (questionnaire survey). The survey was conducted in the form of a questionnaire (see: Appendices 2-4).

 

668 respondents were involved at various stages of the study.

 

 

Diagram 1. Object of the general population

Diagram 2. Subject of the research sample No. 1

 

Based on the research results, the following conclusion can be drawn:

Employees of organizations can be divided into four types, depending on the predominance of their motives of an external and internal nature. Determining the motivational type of workers allows you to choose methods of stimulating influence, which in turn contributes to the formation of appropriate labor behavior.

During the study, the following results were obtained:

– 189 respondents (type 1) belong to the «mixed type of motivation» [12] (approximately equal ratio of external and internal motives);

– 218 respondents (type 2) belong to the «pragmatic type of motivation» (predominance of external motives);

– 157 respondents (type 3) belong to the «humanistic type of motivation» (the predominance of internal motives);

–104 respondents (type 4) belong to the «undefined type of motivation» (low values of both groups of motives).

Diagram 3. Results of research No. 1

 

«Pragmatic type of motivation» prevails in men (123 out of 218).

«Humanistic type of motivation» prevails among women (90 out of 157).

«Mixed type of motivation» prevails among managers (35 out of 60).

«Undefined type of motivation» is more typical for low-skilled workers (32 out of 41).

Type 1. For this type, the motives of the first and second groups (motives of the external character of motivation and of the internal character) received equal values. The respondents of this group marked both external and internal groups of motives with equal indicators. This suggests that representatives of this empirical model equally value for themselves both material and spiritual satisfaction from work. Such people have clear goals in life and work, which initially sets their work activities purposeful.

The goal is the result of an action ideally set in the form of a goal, in other words, a motivated, conscious, expressed in words anticipation of the future result, which is a condition and (or) reason for achieving this result. Hence, target behavior is not “goal-directed” behavior, but “goal-directed (from goal to result)” behavior.

The goal is the result of an action ideally set in the form of a goal, in other words, a motivated, conscious, expressed in words anticipation of the future result[13], which is a condition and (or) reason for achieving this result. Hence, target behavior is not «goal-directed» behavior, but «goal-directed (from goal to result) behavior»[14]. The goal expresses a certain desired level of satisfaction of needs, values, etc. Having a clear idea of the desired results of their actions, it is much easier for a person with clear orientations to build a line of behavior in the organization and evaluate the rewards received.

The presence of equal values of the coefficients of the personal significance of both groups of motives gives grounds to refer these motivational orientations of professional activity to a mixed group of motivational orientations.

Type 2. High indicators for this type were obtained by motives for achieving their own prestige, money earnings, obtaining the desired life status (which subsequently makes it possible to buy prestigious things), that is, motives of a material nature. This fact speaks of the desire of a person of this type to consolidate or increase the occupied socio-economic status: «the ability to own consumer goods becomes part of the social position, status, being, essence of the individual».^[15]

High indicators of the value of money earnings indicate the desire to obtain a higher level of material well-being. People of this type are convinced that material wealth is the main component of life's well-being and is the basis for developing a sense of self-worth and increasing self-esteem. Such employees, as a rule, work in the organization only because they receive material benefits. They are not motivated by the work itself, as such, professional activity for them is only a way to achieve material well-being. Such employees value work in any particular organization only until it is profitable for them, they are not tied to the company, they can often change jobs in search of higher earnings.

As a rule, people of this type are good professionals, as they are able to find a new job and almost always with a higher salary than in the previous job. For an organization, this type of employee is valuable from a professional point of view, but not every company can afford to retain such employees only by a constant increase in the material component of remuneration, and therefore the need to stimulate personnel with new methods, the formation of a new corporate culture and corporate spirit is imminent.

High indicators of motives of material interest in work give reason to classify workers of this empirical model as a pragmatic type of motivation for professional activity (material motivational orientations of professional activity).

Type 3. For workers of this type, the main motives for work were the development of oneself as a professional, a sense of pride in their work and its results, awareness of their own significance, conviction in the importance of the chosen business, the social significance of the profession, that is, the so-called spiritual satisfaction. Taking into account the secondary importance of the level of labor income, it can be assumed that for this type of workers, material remuneration as a result of labor is not dominant. Rather, on the contrary, representatives of this group will prefer lower wages, provided they are morally satisfied with their work.«For an adult, work is the main sphere of social life. It provides psychological balance by stimulating positive emotions (joy, interest)»[16]. This explains the high need for spiritual satisfaction from work, characteristic of this type of personnel.

This fact proves once again that at the present stage of development of society, people in an organization can no longer be managed on the basis of strict economic regulations and standards. There is an urgent need for a new system of personnel incentives, which will meet the needs for the spiritual component of work and will contribute to the formation of «loyal and flexible» personnel based on moral and ethical values.

In addition, this group of people is characterized by a serious attitude towards their duties, exactingness towards themselves. The high indicators of the achievement motive inherent in this type of people show the person's desire to achieve tangible results in the professional sphere. But it should be noted that the «perceptibility» of the results is determined by the person himself through the inner experience of «reward». According to V.G. Aliev and S.V. Dokholyan, proceeding from McClelland's theory of the content of motives, «the presence of a high need for achievement among workers influences their activity and performance. This need can be attributed not only to the characteristics of individuals, but also to the characteristics of individual societies and groups»[17].

Another important indicator that characterizes this group is the importance of the value of self-development, which implies the desire to fully realize the inherent abilities, that is, to achieve professional self-actualization.

A. Maslow defines self-actualization as «long-term, constant involvement in the process of growth and development of abilities to the maximum possible». Self-actualization in his understanding is «a person's striving for self-incarnation, for actualizing the potentialities inherent in him».[18]Self-actualization in any of the social concepts is assessed as the highest human need. It can permeate any other need and can also be defined as a person's fulfillment of his calling.

High indicators of motives for a sense of pride in their profession, a sense of the importance of «business» indicate the desire of a person with this type of motivation to work in the profession of his choice, which gives grounds to classify workers of this empirical model as a humanistic type of motivation for professional activity (spiritual motivational orientations of professional activity).

Type 4. For this type of employees, both groups of motives received low coefficients of personal significance. Representatives of this group were unable to build a hierarchy of motives. This phenomenon means that people with similar characteristics do not have pronounced motives for activity or are not aware of them, and, therefore, their labor activity does not have a purposeful nature, that is, certain goals of activity. Such a state of the motivational sphere of personnel is very dangerous for the organization, since the results and quality of work are sharply reduced for employees with a lack of performance goals.

The behavior of such workers is not directed towards any specific object, or towards any goal; it looks senseless, irrational. A person cannot convincingly formulate its goal or meaning, does not choose means, does not expect specific rewards.

On the other hand, it can be pseudo-non-directional behavior[19], behavior simply not understood (both by the observer and by the subject of the action himself), not formulated in rational terms, although, perhaps, it is simply not realized at a given moment in time. It can be a search for a reference point, undirected activity at various levels of behavior. The meaning of this activity is the search for an object, a goal, a reference point for activity. It is also possible impulsive behavior as not yet realized and not turned into a goal, which does not have guidelines for the realization of needs, motives, and aspirations. Such behavior situationally represents a simple instinctive reaction of the individual to those situations for which she does not have ready-made guidelines, and there is no way to form them at the moment.

Low coefficients of the personal significance of labor motives give grounds to classify the motivational orientations of the professional activity of this empirical model as indefinite motivational orientations.

Given the systematic nature of the research approach to the analysis of the motives of professional activity, the identified grounds for typologizing groups of employees can be considered a unified form of modeling work collectives based on the conformity of the hierarchy of value-motivational guidelines in labor activity.

So, the empirical models of employees obtained in the course of the study allow us to conclude that the entire personnel of the organization can be divided into four types, each of which has certain motivational orientations:

Type 1: equal ratio of external and internal motives of professional activity;

Type 2: the predominance of external motives of professional activity;

Type 3: the predominance of internal motives of professional activity;

Type 4: there is no clear expression in the motivational sphere of the personality.

 

Analysis of personal expectations systems of personnel

One of the most important elements that determine the efficiency of labor activity is the system of individual expectations, which is also a parameter and element of research and design of labor incentive systems. Expectations largely shape the type of work behavior.

As for the system of criteria for assessing the immediate result and the labor process by the employee and the organization, this parameter directly depends on the motivational complex and the system of expectations, it is largely formed and conditioned by them.

Human activity is not just a set of separate actions and deeds, it is purposeful in nature. What he aspires to, what he intends to receive as a result of his activity, acts for him as a goal, that is, directs his activity and gives it meaning. This statement is especially characteristic of work[20]. In any behavior there is a motive that determines exactly this particular form of its manifestation[21].          Purposeful behavior presupposes the behavior of the individual in accordance with the chosen goal. There can be a huge number of such goals. The choice of means and ways to achieve them directly depends on their nature, which allows us to speak about the presence of various types of purposeful behavior as a life strategy and the presence of various levels of social aspirations. In this regard, it can be assumed that the type of labor behavior depends on the motives of professional activity and on the level of the employee's expectations, that is, on what he wants to get as a result for his work. «Motivation of behavior is a complex-structured system of stimuli (motives) of a person's activity, which determines the choice of certain forms of behavior in specific situations»[22]. Motivation of behavior is determined by the complexity of the structure of interests, needs and value orientations of the individual.

The dispositional concept in relation to work behavior proves that behavior regulators are organized hierarchically and determine the individual's predisposition to a certain type of behavior. The hierarchy of dispositions is associated with the hierarchy of personality needs, its motives for activity[23]. The highest level of disposition - value orientations - determine the strategy of behavior, basic social attitudes regulate the activity of an individual in a special (professional) environment. When choosing a specific option for behavior, an individual correlates the situation with accumulated experience, with his needs, motives and expectations. In this case, all levels of dispositions are involved in the choice, but at a particular moment in time one of these levels may acquire a dominant character[24].

 

This approach provides grounds for identifying different types of labor behavior depending on the employee's motivational type and the system of expectations characteristic of this type. In this case, expectation means what a person wants or expects to receive in the course of his professional activity, what he starts his labor activity for.

According to the results of the study, the system of employee expectations is not universal for all types of employees (see: Appendices 5-8).

Diagram 4. Subject of the research sample No. 2

 

Based on the analysis of the data obtained during the study (see: Appendix 10), four different waiting systems were obtained:

- 180 respondents refer to a «mixed system of expectations»;

- 212 respondents refer to the «system of material expectations»;

- 144 respondents refer to the «intangible expectations system»;

- 94 respondents refer to the «ambiguous system of expectations».

Diagram 5. Results of research No. 2

 

In the course of comparing the results of the two studies, a regularity was revealed that the mixed type of motivational orientations is characterized by a mixed system of employee expectations in relation to the organization. This means that workers with such a system of expectations equally noted the importance of the material and moral factor of labor. For them, the most important thing is to achieve harmony and balance between the material and moral components of work.

            For workers with a pragmatic type of motivational orientations, a system of material expectations is characteristic. This means that employees in their work activities and in choosing an organization are guided mainly by material expectations (wages, social benefits, convenience of the place of work, etc.).

            For workers with a humanistic type of motivational orientations, a system of expectations of an intangible (spiritual) nature is characteristic. This means that workers in their professional activities are guided not by wages, but by the content of the work. The most important thing for them is the expectation that their work will be socially significant and useful to others, rather than that it will be prestigious and highly paid.

            For workers with an indefinite type of motivational orientations, an ambiguous system of expectations is characteristic. It is characterized by the absence of unambiguous and understandable motives, in connection with which the expectations of such workers vary and do not have a pronounced definite character.

Having indicated that the type of labor behavior is determined by the type of motivation, the structure of expectations, accumulated experience, it becomes possible to single out the main types of labor behavior.

For employees belonging to the mixed type of motivational orientations and systems of expectations, the partner type of behavior is characteristic, expressed in the willingness to make efforts to work for the sake of the organization, in an effort to achieve harmony between the external and internal motives of their work.The commitment to organization of such employees is usually normative[25]and is explained by the fact that they feel a kind of debt to the organization for the work opportunities provided to them. This kind of compromise between employee and organization is very effective and produces good results in terms of productivity and labor, use of working time and loyalty. Such an employee builds his relationship with the organization on the basis of a partnership principle and, subject to the opportunity to satisfy his material and non-material needs, remains loyal to the organization for a long time, effectively performing his work duties.

The idea of ought[26]also serves as a guideline of behavior for a person of this type of behavior. The purest expression of this mechanism of orientation is morality, which is a specifically volitional self-regulation of behavior, where a person gives himself a law of behavior (and in this sense he is free here), but deduces this law not from his own nature (needs, interests, aspirations), but from his idea of ​​what should be. The functions of following duty are the conscious formation of one's own personality, orientation of behavior in a situation of maximum personal and (or) social uncertainty, creation of the possibility of strategic behavior.

For workers belonging to the material (pragmatic) type of motivational orientations and to the system of labor expectations of a material nature, the consumer type of behavior is inherent. Employees with this type of behavior do not feel attached to the organization, do not perceive organizational values ​​and goals as their own.Such self-directed human behavior[27]is focused not on external objects, but on oneself as a person. The focus of behavior on one's own personality consists in the desire to be (not to be) or to become (not to become) someone, to acquire or retain some traits or internal states.

The commitment of such employees to the organization is, as a rule, behavioral[28]and is explained by the fact that the employee associates his work activity with a specific organization for as long as it is beneficial to him.Such workers can achieve success in their professional activities, but due to the low level of development of their organizational culture, they do not feel a sense of involvement in a common cause, and, consequently, in a specific organization.

For workers belonging to the humanistic (spiritual) type of motivational orientations and the system of labor expectations of a non-material nature, an interested type of behavior is characteristic, since workers of this type perceive work as the main sphere of self-realization, and the main motive of their activity is not earnings, but the content of labor itself. They are characterized by emotional[29]commitment to the organization, which is expressed in the fact that employees identify themselves with the organization, perceive its goals and values and obey its requirements, since they matter to them, relate to their needs, interests, aspirations.

Values are any material or ideal, real or imaginary object in relation to which people take the position of personal assessment, attach importance to it in their lives, and feel the desire to possess it as a need. Values give grounds for choosing from the available alternatives of action (goals and means), grounds for ordering preferences, selection and evaluation of these alternatives; they define some "boundaries" of actions, that is, they not only direct, but also regulate these actions[30].

Such employees are valuable for the organization, since they are the most loyal and associate their work with a specific organization for the long term, and they work effectively and efficiently.

For workers belonging to an indefinite type of motivational orientations and an ambiguous system of expectations, an indifferent type of behavior is characteristic. This type of behavior is characterized by the absence of an unambiguous version of behavior, since the relationship with the organization for an individual is uncertain. Most often, the behavior of such an employee is situational and depends on a specific moment in time or the circumstances of its initiator, since the individual does not have a clearly formulated goal of behavior and motive for activity, which allows his behavior to vary depending on the situation.

The named types of labor behavior differ from each other in content orientation and effectiveness. Another important feature that makes it possible to understand the work orientation of a person is the person's unique ability to self-regulation. The idea of ​​self-regulation is rooted in the social-cognitive theory of A. Bandura and his work “principles of behavior modification”. According to this idea, by predicting the consequences of his own actions, a person is able to influence his behavior. Many actions of people are regulated by self-imposed reinforcements. Self-reinforcement takes place whenever a person sets the limit of achievement for himself.

Self-regulating impulses enhance behavior through the motivational function. That is, as a result of self-satisfaction from achieving certain goals, a person has a motive to make more and more efforts necessary to achieve the desired behavior.

A wide range of human behavior is regulated by self-esteem reactions, expressed both in the form of self-satisfaction, pride in their successes, and self-dissatisfaction and self-criticism. An important concept in social cognitive theory is the concept of self-efficacy, which refers to the ability of people to become aware of their ability to build behavior appropriate to a specific task or situation. Such "self-government" is most inherent in people with partner or interested types of behavior, and to the least - with consumer and indifferent types.

So, in the course of the conducted sociological studies, the following correlations were identified and it was proved that:

• the system of labor expectations of the employee is determined by the system of motives;

• the type of employee behavior depends on the nature of the interaction of labor participants and their perception of the organization of the production process.

The identified dependencies made it possible to build a typology of personnel behavior in the organization:

- the mixed type of motivational orientations is characterized by a mixed system of employee expectations, expressed in the partner type of behavior;

- for workers with a pragmatic type of motivational orientations, a system of expectations of a material nature is characteristic, expressed in a consumer type of behavior;

- for workers with a humanistic type of motivational orientations, a system of expectations of an intangible (spiritual) nature is characteristic, expressed in an interested type of behavior;

- workers with an indefinite type of motivational orientations are characterized by an ambiguous system of expectations, expressed in an indifferent type of behavior.

Taking into account the systematic nature of the research approach to the analysis of the motives of professional activity, the identified grounds for the typologization of groups of employees can be considered a unified form of modeling work collectives based on the conformity of the hierarchy of value-motivational guidelines in labor activity.

 

 

3.2. Assessment of the quality of incentive systems

The main provisions of the concept of social exchange made it possible to single out the basic elements for determining the effectiveness of labor activity and creating the opportunity to create an equivalent exchange. These include:

• the system of expectations of the employee and the system of expectations of the organization;

• the system of criteria for assessing the immediate result and the labor process by the employee and the organization;

• the motivational structure of the personality.

To a certain extent, any manager can feel that the incentive system is not bringing the desired results. But in order to more accurately understand what the problem of a particular employee is, what is actually happening and to evaluate the incentive system, a specific method is needed. This technique should take into account the coordination of systems of motives, expectations and manifestations of the type of behavior with the organizational system of incentives for personnel and the type of managerial influences.

Consider the technology for evaluating the incentive system.

At the first stage, the motivational type of the employee is determined. Based on the results of this study, the employee's belonging to one of the motivational types is revealed (consider the methodology using the example of determining the type of motivation depending on the ratio of internal and external motives):

• mixed type of motivation;

• pragmatic type of motivation;

• humanistic type of motivation;

• indeterminate type of motivation.

According to the analysis of the results of the study, each of these types has its own individual unique system of labor expectations.

For a mixed typeof motivation, the system of labor expectations is also of a mixed type and represents the following hierarchy:

1. money earnings;

2. the social significance of the chosen profession;

3. striving for advancement at work;

4. the need for communication;

5. getting satisfaction from the very process of work;

6. the possibility of the most complete self-realization in this particular activity;

7. obtaining the desired life status, etc.

For the pragmatic type of motivation, the system of labor expectations is material in nature and represents the following hierarchy:

1. money earnings;

2. striving for advancement at work;

3. social security and benefits;

4. obtaining the desired life status;

5. the ability to buy prestigious items;

6. the social significance of the chosen profession;

7. conviction of the importance of the chosen type of activity, etc.

For the humanistic type of motivation, the hierarchy of the system of labor expectations looks different and is a system of an intangible nature:

1. satisfaction from the process itself and the result of the work;

2. the possibility of the most complete self-realization in this particular activity;

3. a sense of the social significance of the chosen profession;

4. the need for communication;

5. dream of working in a certain specialty;

6. money earnings;

7. the ability to buy prestigious items, etc.

For an indefinite type of motivation, the system of labor expectations cannot be determined as unambiguously as in the first three options, since the uncertainty of motives also gives rise to ambiguity in labor expectations. This means the instability and dynamism of the structure of expectations, which does not provide an opportunity and basis to build any hierarchy.

Having determined in this way the motivational type of the employee and the corresponding system of labor expectations, it is necessary to carry out a similar procedure for the organization. The head of an organization or department draws up his own list of expectations regarding the employee, characterizing the current needs of the organization, which determine the requirements for the employee and may include various blocks, ranging from educational requirements to work experience. These blocks are unique for different organizations and depend on the type, form of ownership, type of activity, etc. Further, the employee is invited to mark in the list those items that satisfy him in the organization, that is, those expectations that he realizes while working in a particular company. The same is proposed to be done to the manager: he must mark in the list compiled by him those items that satisfy him in the employee.

The main condition for such a comparison is the quantitative coincidence of items in both lists. Further, the method of comparative analysis determines the number of discrepancies in the list of an employee and an organization.

With this consideration, the results of the comparative analysis can be presented in the following forms:

• complete coincidence, which gives grounds to speak of the quality of the incentive system (the permissible discrepancy in either direction is 10 - 30%);

• partial coincidence, which gives grounds to consider the existing incentive system to be of insufficient quality (admissible discrepancy in any direction is 31 - 60%);

• complete mismatch, which means the fact that the labor incentive system is not of high quality, that is, it does not bring predictable results (the discrepancy in any direction is more than 61%).

Three forms of coincidences reflect the degree of equivalence of social exchange between all participants in labor interactions (complete, partial and inconsistency).

This approach is a quantitative comparison.

For an even more accurate analysis, a qualitative comparison should be used, which consists in not only counting the number of coincidences or mismatches, but in ranking, that is, comparing the expectations and requirements of the employee and the organization in terms of significance. This approach allows the most accurate assessment of the level of quality of the incentive system, as it reflects the hierarchy of the systems of labor expectations, and therefore their level of significance and usefulness for personnel and for the organization.

Such a mechanism is universal in use for the reason that it identifies existing problems in stimulating labor, both for the organization and for the employee, and can be used in diagnosing the level of satisfaction with work, both of an individual, and of a unit and of the entire workforce. This provides an opportunity to develop and use various forms of managerial influence in order to balance the interests of both personnel and the organization, and also makes it possible to assess the degree of quality of the labor incentive system.

The choice of this or that form of managerial influence directly depends on the incentive system existing in the organization, the level of its elaboration, as well as on the motivational type of the employee. For cases of complete or partial coincidence, an option can be proposed to maintain the incentive system in the existing state, its timely diagnosis and modeling of the system in the identified problem areas and the search for ways to improve. A common technology in this case is motivational audit[31].

Motivational audit is an assessment of the effectiveness of the personnel motivation management system, the existing incentive program and an aggregate procedure for assessing the needs of personnel.

The objectives of the audit can be:

• determination of the compliance of the incentive system with the Labor Code of the Russian Federation;

• improvement of the personnel incentive system with a focus on the new goals of the organization;

• assessment of the compliance of the incentive system with the goals and objectives of the organization's development, etc.

The obtained results of the motivational audit can be used in various areas of personnel management.

1. To improve the existing or to develop a new system of incentives for personnel.

2. To improve individual elements of personnel management:

• improving the quality of selection and placement of personnel;

• staff training and professional development;

• development of plans for career development and determination of career orientations of personnel.

 In the case of a complete mismatch, a radical revision of the incentive system and the design of a new one is necessary.

Knowledge of the motives of activity gives grounds to apply certain methods of managerial influence on personnel in order to improve the quality of management of employees, and, consequently, of the organization.

Consequently, having identified the needs of personnel, it becomes possible to develop a labor incentive policy in accordance with the identified expectations and motives of activity. This makes it possible to manage the individual, focusing on his needs, providing opportunities for their satisfaction and implementation. Thus, the management of a person in an organization becomes more conscious and purposeful, and managerial influences are not spontaneous, but planned for the result.

Thus, the stimulation of labor is nothing more than a managerial impact on the employee. It is based on a number of provisions:

1. the result of labor stimulation is the appropriate labor behavior of personnel, which provides an opportunity to effectively use and accumulate labor potential;

2. the basis of the construction of the incentive system is the motivational structure of the employee's personality, the definition of which allows the goals and values ​​of the personnel and the organization to be coordinated, which makes it possible to talk about the reciprocity of the interests of the employee and the organization.

Managing a person in an organization should first of all take into account his motivational sphere, which means that it is necessary for each of the four types of motivational orientations to determine the factors and methods that guarantee the effectiveness of managing this person in the organization. Scientists have long asked the question: «How can the development of needs be influenced by management methods?»[32]

The mixed type of motivational orientations is characterized by an equal ratio between internal and external motives. Employees who belong to this motivational type have a pronounced understanding of the essence and content of their work. They consider it expedient for themselves to have such professional activities, in the process of which they will be able to receive both material and moral reward.

To manage people with mixed motivational orientations, it is recommended to use the methods of perspective (long-range) stimulation, since at the moment a person is already motivated in the right way. This requires strong psychological stimulation mechanisms. «The meaning of life is such a super-situational force that forms the orientation of the personality as a whole...».The very meaning of life «lies in the objective orientation and objective results of life»[33], and, consequently, in labor activity and its results, which gives reason to consider perspective stimulation as a means of forming such a life meaning.

This approach to labor stimulation is based on two concepts: the concept of levels of motivation by V.M. Teplov and the concept of promising lines by A.S. Makarenko[34]. To build an operating system of labor incentives based on long-term motivation, it is necessary to take into account a number of features:

• the effectiveness of the impact on a person increases with an increase in the level of motivation from short to long. A person determines his attitude to activity on the basis of how far he is aware of its prospects and possible results for him;

• not all tasks and goals can become “distant” for a person, but only those that are competently stimulated and initiated, that is, they are based on certain prerequisites for activity and are differentiated depending on the psychological characteristics of a person (age, needs).

Currently, organizations are characterized by a one-sided focus on near motivation, which can no longer provide employees who want to work with high labor efficiency, full-fledged conditions for the realization of their labor potential. The methods of promising stimulation can be the creation of a special culture of relations between the personnel and the management of the organization, and a unique system of promotion and training of employees, that is, all those activities that will contribute to the actualization of needs and motives for a long period of time in a particular organization. A long-term perspective can contribute to the self-development of employees, their self-actualization in professional activities, which in turn will provide the organization with qualified personnel with a high degree of loyalty to the company.

The pragmatic type of motivational orientations is characterized by the predominance of external motives of professional activity. This means that people who are inherent in such motivational orientations, in their work activities are focused not on the content of work itself, the process of work, but on the benefits that they receive as a result of their activities. Externally motivated activity stops or its effectiveness is significantly reduced as soon as external reward, reinforcement disappears. Similarly motivated employees are usually good specialists, as they are able to find a new job and almost always with a higher salary than in the previous one. However, such employees are "expensive" for the organization, since in this case the organization's management is forced to focus on the use of material incentives (usually monetary) to increase the interest of the organization's employees in productive work. Such an approach is fraught with the fact that in a difficult period for the company, there may simply not be an employee who would be ready to work in it, even if wages are reduced, since employees of this type do not have a sense of pride in their organization.

In order to influence the formed motivation of employees, «strong psychological mechanisms of motivation are required inherent in each individual, for which specially organized incentives are needed»[35]. On the basis of these incentives, appropriate methods of management influence are developed. These methods should include the activation of achievement motivation. «Achievement motivation... can be defined as an attempt to increase or maintain as high a person's ability as possible for all activities to which success criteria can be applied and where the performance of such an activity can, therefore, lead to either success or failure»[36]. The use of such methods in stimulation will help to evoke a feeling of enthusiasm for work, and with a successful solution of the tasks set, satisfaction with work, and not with its material side, but with its content.

This approach conceptually proceeds from the theory of motivation by D. McClelland, who identified the three most important needs for achievement: the need for involvement, the need for power, the need for success. The activation of these motives of work activity is possible through the formulation of complex, but significant for the organization, tasks in front of employees and a rewarding reaction when performing[37]. At the same time, the main task of the company is to coordinate the motivation for the employee to achieve personal success and recognition with the motivation to achieve success and recognition of the goals and objectives of the company.

Another method of managing an employee with external motivational orientations is to activate the internal motives themselves by involving him in the corporate culture.

For the humanistic type of motivational orientations, the predominance of internal motives of activity is characteristic. High indicators of the value of self-development mean a person's desire to receive objective information about the characteristics of his character, abilities and other characteristics of his personality. This implies that the potential of the individual is almost unlimited and that, first of all, it is necessary to achieve their fullest realization.

«Information, knowledge and self-development are a systemically forming factor of a new social post-industrial reality, ....That affirms a person as a leading factor in the life of a production (economic) and social unit, forms a new paradigm of post-economic doing business». As a result, the management concept, previously focused only on reproduction, is also changing. Management is now focused on impact through a variety of socio-economic and moral incentives to encourage employees to work and develop with enthusiasm and dedication.

This type of worker is characterized by pride in their work, a sense of the social importance of the chosen profession. However, this does not mean at all that the motive of the importance of labor income is ignored by the employee: representatives of this group choose lower wages, but only if they have moral satisfaction with their work. As a rule, such motivation is rarely encountered in practice (in the study, the proportion of such workers is in third place), or it is typical for emerging (developing) organizations, where motivational influences are the basis of personnel policy. This approach assumes the actualization of the disinterested enthusiasm of workers, the formation of patriotism due to the lack of material resources in such organizations as a basis for incentives.

It should be emphasized that this approach fosters in the employee a sense of duty and attachment to the company only at the initial stage of his work. In the future, however, such incentives can lead to demotivation and reduce the activity of the staff, since «you always want to eat». To avoid a demotivating effect on personnel, it is recommended to use the motivation-reinforcement method as effective ways of managing this type of employee, that is, stimulating this type of employee with the help of those means that would keep the existing motivation at the same level or strengthen it.

For the organization, such employees are very valuable, since they are properly motivated by the work itself, love work, and the task of any organization is to «meet the expectations» of such employees and thereby achieve loyalty to the organization. This becomes possible thanks to the following incentive methods, which will ensure the effectiveness of personnel management with a predominance of internal motivational orientations:

• participation in the share capital (purchase of shares of the enterprise at preferential prices and receipt of dividends);

• stimulation by providing free time;

• social insurance programs;

• methods of psychological stimulation;

• granting a certain freedom in independent choice of decisions[38];

• providing an opportunity to broaden the horizons of their professional knowledge and skills.

These methods are not of a direct material nature, but indirectly prove to the employee his significance and value for the organization. In order to maintain and/or enhance internal motivation, it is not recommended to use direct methods of material incentives, since researchers have proven that money acts in a reducing way on internal motivation to work[39]. External reward will be effective only if external factors will affect the internal motivation of the individual to the extent that they will affect the sense of competence, provided that this activity is self-determined. Those factors that increase the sense of competence have a positive effect on intrinsic motivation, while those that reduce it have a negative effect on intrinsic motivation[40].

For employees with an indefinite type of motivational orientations, it is necessary to use the activation of goal-setting motives as measures of the control (stimulating) influence.

The most important and generalizing mechanism of goal-setting is the existence in a person of some life plan[41], life goal[42], project[43], general motto of the event[44].The presence of this mechanism is associated with the ability and desire of a person to carry out self-projection into the future, not only as setting specific goals, but also as self-projection, that is, as an integral, and not partial, transfer of oneself into the future. The sphere of functioning of this orientation mechanism is the sphere of personal meanings, that is, those individualized meanings of a person's actions and motives, the objective, supra-individual (including sociocultural) foundations of which are not only deeply hidden, but also uniquely transformed, by virtue of which they can look as irrational or vague, elusive. As a result of the constant dominance of certain motives, a stable purposefulness of a person (internal position, personality orientation) spontaneously develops, the nature of which is predominantly emotional. As a result of constant internal work (mainly work on awareness), a certain life goal (leading motive) is formed, aimed at hierarchizing meaning-forming motives.

The impact of stimuli on an individual in order to develop and form his motives for goal-setting, i.e. those motives of activity that form a stable connection between the employee and the organization, contributes to an increase in interest in work and in the organization itself.

Depending on the individual characteristics of the individual, it is necessary to determine the list of alleged unmet needs of life of various levels that is relevant for the employee and stimulate, on this basis, a unique set of achievements and corresponding goals.

So, the process of building a labor incentive system consists in identifying, agreeing and observing the conditions (basic parameters) of the equivalence of social exchange.

An indicator of the quality of the incentive system is the degree of acceptability of the parameters of the equivalence of social exchange by all participants in labor interactions (complete, partial and inconsistency).

The guarantee of the equivalence of remuneration to work results is the key to the success of stimulating the labor activity of the employee and the formation of his manageability, since such an approach contributes to the formation of partnerships between the organization and the employee and the formation of trust, based on the confidence that the efforts spent will be rewarded. It's no secret that a person who trusts someone is easier and easier to manage. The same rule applies to organizational space. The very trust in the organization is formed in the process of stimulating labor based on guarantees of an equivalent (fair) exchange.

The experience of the best Western and domestic leaders shows that success is achieved by those who do not just set tasks for their subordinates and achieve their fulfillment by any means, but those who have the ability to interest, ignite, inspire staff, unite employees with a common idea, and form a team of like-minded people. This is also becoming a key issue in the incentive policy of the organization.

At the strategic level, there are three types of policies for managing staff motivation in their work[45]:

• The prevalence of the system of stimulating influences on the personnel of the organization. In this case, the organization focuses on the use of various incentives (usually monetary) to increase the interest of the organization's employees in productive work. This approach is fraught with many dangers for the leader. Indeed, in a difficult period for the company, there may simply not be an employee who would be ready to work in it, even if wages are reduced. After all, the employees did not develop either a sense of patriotism or a sense of pride in their organization.

• The prevalence of the system of motivational personnel management of the organization. This type of personnel policy assumes the actualization of the disinterested enthusiasm of employees, the formation of patriotism, etc. For example, this approach often prevails in emerging (emerging) organizations due to their lack of a material base as the basis for incentives. This approach fosters in the employee a sense of duty and attachment to the company only at the initial stage of his work. In the future, such incentives can lead to demotivation and reduce the activity of staff. This is its essential drawback.

• Harmonious combination of a complex of stimulating influences and motivational personnel management. This approach can be considered the most optimal, smoothing out the extremes of the first two approaches. As a rule, such a policy is implemented by organizations developed in all respects, in which a value corporate culture and a fair mechanism for the distribution of the organization's material benefits have already been formed.

It is to such a harmonious combination and, kind of, the principle of building incentive systems that a modern leader should strive for, because in the process of stimulating labor, the organization and the employee interact. And on what this interaction of the named parties will be and how it will be formed and built, the results and success of the activities of the entire organization as a whole depend, first of all.

 

 

 

 

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