Abstract (English):
The main objective of this book is to acquaint the reader with the main modern problems of the multisensor data analysis and opportunities of the hyperspectral shooting being carried out in the wide range of wavelengths from ultraviolet to the infrared range, visualization of the fast combustion processes of flame propagation and flame acceleration, the limit phenomena at flame ignition and propagation. The book can be useful to students of the high courses and scientists dealing with problems of optical spectroscopy, vizualisation, digital recognizing images and gaseous combustion. The main goal of this book is to bring to the attention of the reader the main modern problems of multisensory data analysis and the possibilities of hyperspectral imaging, carried out in a broad wave-length range from ultraviolet to infrared by methods of visualizing fast combustion processes, propagation and flames acceleration, and limiting phenomena during ignition and flame propagation. The book can be useful for students of higher courses and experimental scientists dealing with problems of optical spectroscopy, visualization, pattern recognition and gas combustion.

Keywords:
Remote measurements, optoelectronic methods, multisensor data analysis, hyper spectral shooting, ramjet engine, Catalytic Stabilization

Optoelectronic devices such as the domestic line of hyperspectral sensors of the optical range and the UV-C sensor, developed and created at «SPC «Reagent» CJSC are considered. A photo-integrated CMOS sensor performs registration of hyperspectral images. The main technical characteristics of the sensors and examples of hyperspectral RGB images obtained during the tests are presented. Key words: hyperspectrometer, objective, diaphragm bundle, dispersing device, photo-integrated matrix, prism, resolution, sensor The optoelectronic devices that will be discussed in this chapter include hyperspectrometers and ultraviolet sensors in the wavelength range of 250-280 nm (UV-C sensors). As mentioned in Chapter 1, modern hyperspectrometers provide detailed spatial and spectral information about the type and state of probed natural and anthropogenic objects on the earth's surface. It also gives information about various dynamic processes, for example, combustion and explosion processes, which will be discussed below. The interest shown in such devices is explained by the fact that due to the Gaussian distribution of the instantaneous values of the electromagnetic field entering the sensor lens. All the useful information contained in the optical signal is displayed in the spectrum. The more accurately the spectrum envelope of the received radiation is reproduced, the more information can be extracted from it [1]. It is no coincidence, therefore, that the developers strive to increase the number of spectral channels and higher spectral resolution of sensors from units of spectral channels of multispectral devices to several hundred and thousands of channels in hyperspectrometers. Hyperspectrometers can be used with aircraft (aircraft, helicopters, uncrewed aerial vehicles), satellites, in ground and laboratory research. The data of hyperspectral measurements are especially useful for solving such complex problems as detecting small objects, identifying the composition of the objects under study and dynamic processes, differentiating closely related classes of objects, assessing biochemical and geophysical parameters, etc. Only hyperspectral measurements can reveal small spectral differences between individual elements of an object. A hyperspectrometer is an optoelectronic sensor that allows simultaneous measurement of spectral and spatial coordinates. This chapter deals with push broom hyperspectrometers, which measure a narrow band of emitting, reflecting or scattering surfaces. Registration is carried out on a two-dimensional matrix, along one coordinate of which the spatial coordinate x is fixed (along a narrow band of the recorded surface), and along the other - the spectral one. As a rule, the third coordinate y is formed due to the movement of the hyperspectrometer by some kind of carrier (airplane, helicopter, car, satellite), or this movement is carried out using a rotating device. In fig. 1, the process of hyperspectral remote sensing using a delivery aircraft is demonstrated. The basic concept of hyperspectral imaging is the "hypercube" shown in Fig. 2. Fig. 1. Remote sensing of the Earth by a push broom hyperspectrometer. This is the name of the set of data formed by the values of the intensity of light emitted or reflected from the investigated two-dimensional surface, conventionally divided into image elements - the pixels of the emitted light signal. Fig. 2. Hyperspectral cube. In addition to the two standard coordinates X and Y, the spectral coordinate  and the intensity of the spectral line are added, which provides the 4D dimension of the data space. If the hyperspectrometer is at rest (for example, when registering combustion and explosion processes), then, since the data sampling from the hyperspectrometer's recording device occurs in frames accumulated on the hyperspectrometer's recording device for a certain time, in this case (instead of the Y coordinate) coordinate t - time occurs. In other words, it becomes possible to study the temporal characteristics of the processes occurring on a narrow strip of the surface. In this case, the 4D array is formed by the x coordinate, the spectral coordinate - by the wavelength , the intensity of the spectral line I and the time t. Unfortunately, in Russia in this branch of technology there was a certain lag behind the developments carried out by a number of foreign countries. significant efforts are being made to create promising hyperspectral sensors to correct radically the current situation in Russia. In particular, the team of employees of SPC"Reagent" CJSC, the Space Research Institute RAS, the Ishlinsky Institute for Problems in Mechanics RAS has been developing hyperspectral sensors of the optical range for many years [2-5]. The experience accumulated in the course of these developments made it possible to create a line of hyperspectrometers of the 0.30 - 1.0 µm range in terms of their main technical characteristics, which are not inferior to similar foreign models. When designing a line of hyperspectrometers, special attention was paid to the calculation of their optical schemes, the choice of dispersive devices and detectors. In this regard, the purpose of this Chapter is to describe the developed line of hyperspectral modules operating in the specified range, their tactical and technical characteristics, the results of field experiments performed with their help, as well as possible areas of application of a scientific and applied nature, in particular, for remote sensing of combustion and explosion processes. The selection of a narrow band of the probed object, which is necessary for the operation of the hyperspectrometer in the push broom mode, is performed by means of a slit located in the diaphragm assembly. The diaphragm bundle is placed in the best image plane of the input lens (focal plane). When designing hyperspectral modules of the 0.30-1.0 µm range, the developers were tasked with obtaining the maximum possible values for the spatial and spectral resolution at the given values of the field of viewing. In this regard, an approach was used based on the search for various kinds of compromise solutions, which made it possible to find the optimal design option for which the optical system of hyperspectral modules was calculated. In particular, it was decided to create several hyperspectral modules with the ability to cover the entire specified spectral range. In the course of model experiments, using the Zemax program, calculations of the path of the rays in the hyperspectrometer and the circle of confusion of the spot in the plane of the photo-integrated matrix were performed to assess the potential spatial resolution of the hyperspectral modules. Based on these calculations, the designs of the hyperspectral modules were selected. In fig. 3 the path of rays in one of the hyperspectral modules (which was later called VID-IK3) is shown. In Fig. 4 an example of calculating the circle of confusion for the same module at different viewing angles of a point source (00, 6.30, 9.00, 12.60 and 180 - points 1-5) and for two wavelengths (450 and 900 nm) is presented. It follows from an analysis of Fig. 4 that the sizes of the spots lie in the range from 8 to 16 μm, which with a focal length of the module of 17 mm will correspond to the dimensions of a pixel on the earth's surface from a height of exposure of 1 km - from 0.3 to 0.6 m. Based on the calculations performed, an experimental series of hyperspectrometers was manufactured. Various dispersive elements can be used in hyperspectrometers: a diffraction grating, a holographic grating, a prism, a combination of prisms, a combination of optical wedges and a diffraction grating, etc. One of the simplest options for implementing a dispersing element is a glass prism. Fig. 3. Calculated ray path in the VID-IK3 hyperspectral module (1 - entrance lens, 2 - diaphragm unit with a slit, 3 - collimator, 4 - dispersive element, 5 - projection lens, 6 - photo-integrated matrix) For spectral instruments, prisms are made from flints and heavy flints, since these glasses have high-refractive indices and dispersion. Both 600 refractive angle prisms and a constant deflection prism were used. Fig. 4. Circle of confusion a point in the image plane: a - for a wavelength of 450 nm; b - for a wavelength of 900 nm. In the case of a prism with a refractive angle of 600, there is still no total internal reflection from the second surface and a high dispersion is achieved. In one of the hyperspectral modules, in order to reduce its size, a prism of constant deflection angle of 900 (Abbe prism) was used (see Fig. 3, structural element 4). All hyperspectral modules have the same functional diagram (see Fig. 5). Each module of the line is made in the form of a monoblock without a single fixing plate. Measurements of the spectral resolution of the hyperspectral modules were carried out. Fig. 5. Functional diagram of hyperspectral modules (correspondence of numbers to elements coincides with Fig. 3). In fig. 6, digit 1 shows the measured dependence of the resolution capability  of the VID-IK3 module on the wavelength, and digit 2 shows the fitting, where  is the wavelength, which corresponds to theoretical calculations for a prism hyperspectrometer. Fig. 6. Dependence of the resolution capability of the IK-VID3 module on the wavelength: 1 - measured; 2 - fitting . The hyperspectral modules of the line have small variations in the values of the spectral range and differ significantly in the magnitude of the angle of the field of viewing. Therefore, the choice of their specific version should be determined by the complex of tasks to be solved. Different values of the angle of the field of viewing of hyperspectral modules are achieved by changing the focal length of their optical systems. In addition, the VID-IK1 module, unlike the other three modules, is equipped with a thermal stabilization system, which led to an increase in its weight up to 11 kg. The technical characteristics of the hyperspectral modules are shown in Table 1, and their photographs are shown in Fig. 7. Table 1 Characteristics of hyperspectral modules No. Characteristics Hyperspectral modules UF–VID VID–IK1 VID–IK2 VID–IK3 1. Spectral range, μm 0,35-0,55 0,45-1,0 0,45-0,9 0,4-1,0 2. Covering power, degrees 60 60 20 35 3. Spatial resolution from a height of 1 km, m from 0,3 4. Number of channels to 500 5. Frame rate, 1/s to 70 6. Weight, kg 6,6 11 1,95 3,2 7. Dimensions (LxWxH), mm3 590х310х102 575х315х135 400х180х80 425х230х84 All hyperspectral modules can be equipped with a compact processing system (preprocessing, including calibration, as well as thematic processing) and data storage in real time. In the case of using the developed airborne hyperspectrometers, they are integrated with the on-board navigation system and provide data transfer to communication channels. These systems adapt at the request of the consumer to specific media and purpose. Fig. 7. Line of hyperspectral modules: 1 - UF-VID module (0.30-0.5 microns); 2 - VID-IK1 module (0.45-1.0 μm) (with thermal stabilization); 3 - VID-IK2 module (4) (0.45-0.9) μm; 4- VID-IK3 (2) module (0.4-1.0 μm). As a demonstration of the capabilities of the VID-IK3 hyperspectrometer, Fig. 8 shows the dependence of the spectral density of the dispersion radiance by the barite screen of normalized solar emission. Fraunhofer lines are clearly visible. Fig. 8. Spectral density of the dispersion radiance by the barite screen of normalized solar emission. «SPC «Reagent» CJSC has also developed hyperspectrometers for the wavelength range 900-1800 nm (BIK1) and 900-2500 nm (BIK2). These hyperspectrometers are the same in design, but differ only in the photodetector. Therefore, we will consider only the BIK1 hyperspectrometer. The BIK1 hyperspectrometer, the optical system of which is shown in Fig. 9, contains an entrance objective lense 1, a diaphragm bundle 2, a collimator 3, consisting of two sections 4 and 5. These sections are installed at an angle to each other, the optimal value of the rotation angle is 900. A mirror 6 is placed between the sections of the collimator. A dispersing unit made in the form of a diffraction grating 7 is installed behind the collimator section 5. Further, along the path of the beams, the output lens 8 and the photodetector matrix 9 are installed. Fig. 9. Optical system of the BIK1 hyperspectrometer. In the course of model experiments, using the Zemax program, we calculated the coordinates of the path of the rays in the hyperspectrometer and the circle of confusion of spot in the plane of the photodetector array in order to assess its potential spatial resolution. An example of calculating the circle of confusion for sighting a point source is shown in fig. 10, and in Fig. 11 - coordinates of beams for different wavelengths in the image plane of the hyperspectrometer. It follows from analysis of Fig. 10 and 11 that the sizes of the circles of confusion are in the range from 1.7-10 µm, depending on the wavelength λ and the angular field 2ω along the transverse strip of the viewing area (see the table in the upper right part of Fig. 10). Thus, the spot is significantly smaller than the pixel size of the used photodetector matrix (30 µm x 30 µm). With a lens focal length of 15.4 mm, the size of a pixel on the earth's surface from a shooting height of 1 km will be 2 m (i.e., the angular resolution will be 2·10-3 rad). The optimal design of the BIK1 hyperspectrometer was chosen after taking into account these calculations. Fig. 10. Diagrams of circle of confusion for the instantaneous field of view of the BIK1 device. Fig. 11. Coordinates of beams for different wavelengths in the image plane of the hyperspectrometer. Spectral calibration of the BIK1 hyperspectrometer was carried out using a monochromator according to the correspondence of the matrix pixel number to the wavelength (black squares in Fig. 12). Fig. 12. Graph of correspondence of the pixel number of the matrix and the wavelength of the light beam. The red line in Fig. 12 shows a linear approximation of the measurement results. It can be stated that the measurements and the linear dependence are in good agreement, which indicates the efficiency of the calculations of the hyperspectrometer design. Technical characteristics of the BIK1 module are given in table. 2, and its appearance in Fig. 13. Table 2. Basic technical characteristics of the BIK1 module. Parameter Value Spectral range, nm 900 - 1800 Angle of field of view, degrees 35 Width of spectral channels within the specified spectral range, nm 3,2 Number of spectral channels 250 Number of pixels in a spatial coordinate 320 Angular resolution, rad 2х10-3 Weight, kg 8 Fig. 13. External view of the BIK1 hyperspectrometer. In laboratory conditions, the spectral resolution of hyperspectrometers has been studied. Thus, the spectra of a mercury lamp for the VID IK3 sensor in Fig. 14a and in Fig. 14b for BIK1 is shown. These measurements indicate a good resolution of the sensors under study. Fig. 14. Spectra of a mercury lamp measured with a VID-IK3 (a) hyperspectrometer and BIK1 (b). In some experiments, an assembly of two sensors, VID-IK3 and BIK, was used to measure radiation in the wavelength range of 400–1800 (2500) nm. An external view of the hyperspectrometers assembly is shown in Fig. 15. Here, the number 1 denotes the VID-IK3 hyperspectrometer, and the number 2 denotes the BIK hyperspectrometer in the casing. Fig. 15. Complex of hyperspectrometers VID-IK3 and BIK. It should be emphasized that it is difficult to find a field of science, technology, and the national economy where hyperspectrometers could not be used with great success. So in work [6] about 30 possible applications are noted only in remote experimental studies of regional and global processes in the terrestrial environment using space hyperspectral and infrared sensors. Let us consider the possibility of one of the very interesting applications of hyperspectrometers in the simultaneous use of both a hyperspectrometer and high-speed color filming for laboratory study of combustion and explosion processes. A experimental design laboratory with the combined use of a hyperspectral sensor and a high-speed camera is shown in Fig. 16. Here 1 is a reactor in which a combustion or explosion occurs. 2 is an optical leucosapphire window that allows radiation to pass in the wavelength range of 200 - 6000 nm. And 3 is a narrow band recorded by a hyperspectrometer. Fig. 16 demonstrates the process of hyperspectral imaging of combustion and explosion in laboratory conditions using a VID-IK3 hyperspectrometer. The ray propagation scheme in the hyperspectrometer is shown in Fig. 17a (the object numbers correspond to the numbers in Fig. 5). Fig. 16. Scheme of an experiment on the combined use of a hyperspectrometer and high-speed filming to study combustion and explosion processes. Fig. 17. Stages of the process of hyperspectral imaging of combustion and explosion in laboratory conditions. The spectrometer field of view provides a view of a narrow bamd along the reactor window (line 3 in Fig. 16). In fig. 17b hyperspectral data (hypercube) in pseudo-RGB colors (horizontal - spatial coordinates of the red stripe, and vertical - dependence on shooting time) are shown. In fig. 17c, the emission spectrum corresponding to one of the points of the hypercube and depending on the position on the survey line and time is demonstrated. The use of a high-speed cine camera makes it possible to compare the recorded spectrum of the video frame of the combustion mode under study at the same moment in time, which provides unique information about the peculiarities of the process in the given volume elements. Chapters 4-7 of this book discuss in detail the combined application of hyperspectral measurements in conjunction with high-speed color filming to various modes of the combustion process: laminar, cellular and turbulent flames. Let us consider a promising development of «SPC «Reagent» CJSC, which was mentioned in Chapter 1, an ultraviolet sensor for the wavelength range of 250-280 nm (UV-C sensor). Several variants of such a sensor have been developed. The UV-C sensor "Corona 30" is discussed below. The interest in the 250-280 nm region is due to the fact that this range has a relatively low level of background noise. Solar radiation is the main source of natural interference in the optical range. However, thanks to the planet's ozone layer, as well as the atmosphere, the bulk of solar radiation in the 250-280 nm region is blocked. The spectrum of optical solar radiation that reaches the earth's surface is concentrated in the regions of visible and infrared radiation (Fig. 18). Fig. 18. Ultraviolet radiation passing through the Earth's atmosphere. It can be seen from this figure that the spectral range below 280 nm can be characterized as free from solar radiation (solar-blind). The absence of natural interference caused by solar radiation, the low level of background interference in the UV range, makes the solar-blind range very attractive for the creation of photodetector equipment that solves various technical problems. The peculiarities of UV sensors developed by «SPC «Reagent» CJSC are the ability to determine the coordinates of a detected photon, work in a monophotonic mode and determine the time of arrival of a photon. This provides the sensor with a unique ability to measure the time dependence of the detected radiation and analyze this dependence. Thus, the created sensor acquires an innovative quality i.e. the determination of the characteristics of the UV radiation source, which radically increases the potential of the created sensor in comparison with the existing Russian and foreign counterparts. Fig. 19. Photo of the "Corona 30" device Some of the characteristics of this sensor are indicated in Table 3. Table 3. Features of "Corona 30" sensor Characteristic Value Spectral range, nm 250 – 280 Field of view, degrees 30 Spatial resolution, mrad 1 Time resolution, ns 1 The design and operation of the UV sensor is shown in Fig. 20. Fig. 20. Figure explaining the device and principle of operation of the "Corona 30" sensor The device consists of (fig. 20): entrance objective 1, time - Position Sensitive Detector (PSD) 2 with electronic paths, calculator 3, number 4 corresponds to the output data - coordinates and time of arrival of the registered photon. The entrance lens consists of a lens system made of crystals with good transmission of the selected UV range while suppressing other wavelengths and UV filters. Thanks to the entrance lens, a solar-blind mode of registration of UV radiation is provided, and the sensor can work in conditions of intense solar radiation entering the objective. The transmitted photon  enters the photocathode of the PSD detector. The suppression factor of photons with wavelengths other than the range of 250-280 nm after passing through the lens and detector can reach 10-14. PSD provides determination of the angular coordinates of photon reception and determination of the time of its arrival. More details about the operation of UV sensors can be found in [7-9]. The developed sensor is applicable in various fields of science and technology. Chapter 1 demonstrated the use of UV sensors for fire detection. One of the practically important applications is the use of this sensor for remote diagnostics of high voltage alternating current electrical installations and, in particular, power lines (PTL) [10]. This is because a corona discharge occurs on such electrical installations, and especially on electrical insulators of power transmission lines, accompanied by UV radiation. Also, this sensor is promising for optical location, providing good spatial resolution and the ability to operate at any time of the day. The UV sensor can be used in aircraft landing systems [11] and in many other applications. Conclusions for Chapter 2. Optoelectronic devices such as the domestic line of hyperspectral sensors of the optical range and the UV-C sensor, developed and created at "SPC"Reagent" CJSC, are considered. A schematic diagram of a laboratory experiment to study combustion and explosion processes with the combined use of a hyperspectral sensor and a high-speed cine camera is presented.

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