Abstract (English):
The book contains materials on the search for modern and buried alluvial and primary deposits of diamonds. Much attention is paid to prospecting testing of potentially diamondiferous deposits and provides information on all types of diamondiferous rocks currently known. It is addressed primarily to young geologists who have embarked on a search for diamond deposits. It will find the answer to many questions by many geologists, prospectors and prospectors, leading the search for gold and diamonds. While this information product, for the most part, is in the public domain, it also may contain copyrighted materials as noted in the text. Permission to reproduce copyrighted items must be secured from the copyright owner.

Keywords:
diamonds, deposits, Basaltoids, Impactites, Tuffisites, Metamorphites, Lamproites, Kimberlites, placers, Angarida

At present, six types of bedrock containing diamonds are known in the Earth: 1) kimberlites; 2) lamproites; 3) metamorphites; 4) tuffisites; 5) impactites and 6) basaltoids. 3.1. Basaltoids Data on the diamond content of basaltoids appeared in the last century (Kutuyev and Kutuyeva, 1975). Using modern methods of studying rocks V. I. Silaev and colleagues (Silayev et al., 2015) carried out a detailed study of Kamchatka basaltoids and also found diamonds, but already in the products of the latest fissure Tolbachik (Kamchatka) eruption in 2012. Diamonds are well-formed micron crystals up to 700 μm in size with approximately equal faces of the octahedron and cube (Fig. 2). In the depressions and pits on the crystal faces, precipitations of Mg-Fe and Fe silicates, Ca-Mg silicates, aluminosilicates, sulfates, iron oxides, native metals and alloys of the composition Fe, Ni-Cu, Cu-Sn-Fe are observed. In their opinion, the originality of crystal morphological, spectroscopic, mineralogical-geochemical and isotope-geochemical properties gives grounds to classify the Tolbachik diamonds as a previously unknown fluid-volcanogenic-eruptive genetic type. Fig. 2. Photographs of diamond lava crystals of the Tolbachik fissure eruption, obtained using a scanning electron microscope (after EI Gordeev et al., 2014). At the “Volcanism and Related Processes” conference held in Petro-Pavlovsk-Kamchatsky in 2015, L. A. Anikin and colleagues presented data on a new find of diamonds in Kamchatka near the Plosky Tolbachik volcano (upper reaches of the Tolud River) in the products of lava flows erupted in 2013 (Anikin et al., 2015). It was found that diamond-bearing basalts do not contain xenoliths of deep rocks and high-pressure minerals. Heavy diamond concentrates (HDC) in them are corundum, silicon carbide - moissanite, native metals and organic compounds. The synthesis of diamonds and its satellite dikes took place at relatively low temperatures and pressures under reducing conditions from carbon-containing gases (Gordeyev et al., 2014). Fig. 3. General view of the Popigai astrobleme (impact crater) from one of the sides of the Popigay river (photo by Vitaly Gorshkov vitaly-gorshkov.livejournal.com). 3.2. Impactites One of the most famous places in the Earth is the Popigay meteorite crater (astroblema). Its inner diameter is about 90 km, and its depth reaches 200 m (Fig. 3). It was formed 35.7 million years ago, and in 1971, impact diamonds were found in the crater rocks (Masaitis et al., 1975). Large-scale prospecting and exploration work was launched, carried out by the Polar Expedition of the Krasnoyarsk Territorial Geological Administration. Geologists have drilled and documented about 450 wells up to 1500 m deep. A large number of large-volume samples were taken. This made it possible to obtain concentrates with a large amount of impact diamonds, which were not of jewelry value and were sent for technological tests (Fig. 4). According to the results of the tests carried out in the expert opinion of the V. N. Bakul Institute for Superhard materials states that: “... the abrasive ability of the samples provided is on average two times higher than that of synthetic and natural diamonds of similar grain size” (Masaitis et al., 1998). Russian researchers also point out that the use of impact diamonds in the tool industry is promising and highly profitable (Afanasiev, Pokhilenko, 2013; Kryukov et al., 2016; Nikolaev et al., 2017). According to N. P. Pokhilenko and his colleagues (Pokhilenko et al., 2012), the explored reserves of the Udarnoye and Skalnoe deposits, which occupy about 3% of the astrobleme (impact crater) area, amount to 147 billion carats. Thus, the total resources of impact diamonds contained in the bedrock of the Popigai impact deposits are more than an order of magnitude higher than the total reserves of all diamondiferous provinces known in the Earth (Fig. 5). Fig. 4. Impact diamonds from the Popigai astrobleme (photo by V. P. Afanasyev, IGM SB RAS). 3.3. Tuffisites The Vishera group of tuffisite diamond deposits is located in the Vishera river basin (a tributary of the Kama River, Perm Krai). The term “tuffisite” denotes a volcanic rock like tuff or tuff breccia, which arose in connection with the metasomatic processing of sedimentary rocks by volcanic fluids. It is a product of highly fluidized magmatogenic systems capable of forming not only stockwork and dyke-like bodies, but also stratal sill-like formations, layer-by-layer injection into the enclosing sedimentary rocks. Thus, tuffisites of the Krasnovisherskiy complex compose thin stratal bodies, sometimes veins and small stockworks in sedimentary carbonate-terrigenous strata (quartz sandstones, dolomites) of Vendian-Permian age. Fig. 5. One of the slopes of the “Variegated Rocks” in the Popigai astroblem, composed of chaotically mixed blocks, cemented by loose fine-grained rock with pieces and bombs of glass: a - breccia, b - tagamite (based on photographs by Vitaly Gorshkov vitaly-gorshkov.livejournal.com). As a result of the state geological survey carried out on this territory, the confinement of tuffisites to all Ural diamond-bearing placers was established. Their occurrence among from Riphean to Lower Permian rocks indicates post-Early Permian intrusion, which is consistent with the wide distribution of redeposited pyroclastic material in the Triassic-Jurassic deposits of the Upper Kama depression. The difficulty in identifying these rocks is that they are almost completely replaced by clay minerals and are, in fact, mudstone. Their primary nature is established quite definitely i.e. according to intersecting contacts with the host sedimentary rocks, according to a set of specific relict minerals (diamond, pyrope, ilmenite, chromite, sodium richterite, phlogopite, etc.), according to such textures, structural features such as breccia, fluidity and saturation with xenogenic material (Anfilogov et al., 2000). All these features of tuffisites allowed A.Ya. Rybalchenko and his colleagues attribute them to the injection type of rocks (Rybalchenko et al., 1996). According to information obtained by N. S. Ivanova (2011), in the bedrock-adjacent parts of almost all diamond deposits of the Krasnovishersk region, there are unusual rocks of clay and sandy-clay composition, previously attributed to secondary diamond reservoirs. Traces of pelitized ash material were found in the composition of these problematic diamondiferous rocks, which allowed her to consider these rocks as volcanogenic-sedimentary and compare them with the “sandy” tuffs of lamproites in Australia. Thus, the bodies containing diamonds and previously called the secondary reservoir are not redeposited material, but the primary source of diamonds - tuffisites. According to A.Ya. Rybalchenko (Rybalchenko et al., 1997), tuffisites contain minerals of clearly deep origin - chromium knorringite-bearing garnets, chrome spinels, picroilmenites, olivine, phlogopite, and others. Later, lamproites were found in the Southern Urals (Chelyabinsk Region, Kuibasovsky District) (Lukyanova et al., 1992; Bogatykh et al., 2000; Busharina, 2002). It should be noted that the idea of the tuffisite type of diamondiferous rocks was objected to by some researchers (Bogatykh et al., 2000; Malakhov, Busharina, 2000; Anfilogov, 2001, etc.). Later A.Ya. Rybalchenko and colleagues conducted additional studies in the Ural-Timan diamondiferous province and found that many geological, petrographic, and mineralogical-geochemical features of diamondiferous rocks of the Ural type deposits indicate their primacy and belonging to the tuffisite facies of mantle kimberlite-lamproites (Rybalchenko et al. others, 2011). Fig. 6. Morphological types of Ural diamonds: a - a fragment of an individual of the rhombododecahedroid habit (Talitsa-Blagodat, No. 9), b - a single-crystal of a rhombododecahedroid habit (Talitsa-Blagodat, No. 41), c - a fragment of an individual of the combined "EO" habit (Rassolninsky, No. 17), d - a single crystal rhombododecahedroid habit (Rassolninsky, no. 340), e - a fragment of the twin of individuals of the rhombododecahedroid habit (Rassolninsky, no. 64), f - single crystal Janus of the combined “OTSE” habit (Rassolninsky, no. 292) (after Silaev et al., 2010 p. changes). Ural diamonds are relatively small (no more than 2 cm, and the maximum weight of a diamond found in 2004 is 35 carats), but they are distinguished by their chemical purity and high quality. They are mostly colorless or pale in color (bluish, golden-yellow, honey-yellow, amethyst-red) and are ten times more expensive than the Yakutian ones - about $ 700 per carat (Fig. 6). The company "Uralalmaz" CJSC based on the results of exploration work carried out on the right bank of the Sukhaya Volinka river, calculated the reserves of diamonds of categories C1 + C2 in the amount of 13.8 thousand carats, while the placer of Sukhaya Volinka river, was accepted to the State Balance of Reserves and is listed in the unallocated subsoil fund (On the state ..., 2018). 3.4. Metamorphites In the period from 1968 to 1973, geologist of the Kokchetav geological survey expedition (Republic of Kazakhstan) A. A. Zayachkovsky discovered the Kumdykol diamond deposit (Kokchetav massif). Subsequently, it was attributed to a new genetic type of diamond deposits - metamorphogenic (Ekimova et al., 1992; Lavrova et al., 1999). Diamonds were found in sedimentary metamorphic complexes. Earlier, it was assumed that diamonds were formed within the Earth's crust as a result of local tectonic overpressures in the massifs of eclogite and apoeclogite rocks (Rosen et al., 1972). As a result of the exploration and industrial assessment of the Kumdykol deposit carried out by geologists of the Kokchetav GSE in 1983-1986, it was established that the main reserves of diamond are concentrated in gneisses (85.5%), much less in carbonate rocks (5.6%), chlorite-tremalite-quartz rocks (4.2%), garnet pyroxenites (3.4%) and only 1.3% in eclogites. The explored deposit contains huge reserves of diamonds, but they are all very small (technical) and necessary only for the production of abrasive products. Nevertheless, the Kumdykul deposit attracts the attention of scientists all over the world (Claoue-Long et al., 1991; Sobolev et al., 1990). According to L. D. Lavrovoy (Lavrova et al., 1999) the age of regional metamorphism at the Kumdykol deposit, during which diamond-bearing gneisses, pyroxenites, eclogites and other rocks were formed, is Proterozoic, and the age of diamond formation is Cambrian (about 530 Ma). Diamond-bearing rocks are linearly distributed along the main tectonic zone and are confined to the most reworked rock blocks. Blocks of rocks within the ore zone, little affected by metasomatic processing, do not contain diamonds or are poorly diamondiferous. This indicates the formation of diamonds in situ and does not agree well with the paradigm of their crystallization in the subduction zone. Diamonds from metamorphogenic rocks differ significantly from diamonds from deposits of other genetic types. They are small (on average 30 microns), imperfect in shape (lamellar, skeletal, spheroidal) and contain a large number of impurities. Apparently, the diamond content of metamorphic rocks is determined by the “shock heating” of the microscopic accumulations of hydrocarbons present in them. The most probable cause of shock heating is contact metamorphism during intrusive massif intrusion, and with distance from the contact zone, pyrolysis of hydrocarbon inclusions occurs and graphite is formed. It is quite possible that the metamorphic rocks on the Kokchetav massif were formed at high pressure, which arose as a result of the collision of two giant continental plates (suture zone). 3.5. Lamproites Lamproites are ultrabasic igneous rocks rich in leucite and sanidine. The name lamproite was given from the Greek "lampros". It is brilliant because of the phlogopite phenocrysts characteristic of this group. The main minerals of lamproites are magnesian olivine (forsterite), phlogopite, diopside, leucite, sanidine, richterite, as well as specific minerals vadeite, priderite. They form small bodies in terms of volume: dikes and tubes, which are easily subject to destruction and weathering. Lamproite lavas and lamproite tuffs are described. There are 24 known areas in the Earth with finds of lamproites, while the total volume does not exceed 100 m3. Lamproites are found both on ancient platforms and in fold belts. They have a wide range of ages from 1.4 billion years to 56 thousand years. Lamproites contain a large number of pyrope-bearing xenoliths of deep rocks (eclogites, peridotites, etc.). The discovery of diamondiferous lamproites in 1979 in Western Australia (the Argile pipe), thanks to which in the first year of operation (1986), about 29 million carats of diamonds were mined. It amounted to more than 40% of the total world production, significantly expanded search area for both primary and alluvial diamond deposits (Temporary methodical ..., 1988). Nevertheless, the bulk of them (about 95%) are industrial diamonds (Fig. 7). Diamond-bearing lamproites in Western Australia are represented by two petrochemical rock types - olivine and leucite. This is a typical association of diaschist (split) rocks, in which melanocratic olivine lamproite can be attributed to lamprophyres (these are fine-grained rocks rich in dark-colored minerals, included in the vein formation together with leucocratic vein aplites and pegmatites), and lamproitic feldspathoid aplite. The average weight of Argal diamonds is 16 mg, and the weight of the largest diamond found in 1990 is 14.34 carats. The Argyle pipe is surrounded by diamondiferous placers, as its erosional section is estimated at 400 m (Shigley et al., 2001). Most likely, the formation of lamproite magmas is associated with the partial melting of the lithospheric mantle at depths of more than 150 km (Lamproity ..., 1991; Jakes, 1989; Petrographic ..., 2009). Apparently, the layering of lamproite magma occurred after it acquired a diamond-bearing specificity in deep chambers, which grew due to pyrope peridotites and partly inherited their high-pressure mineralization. In this regard, both types of lamproites are diamondiferous, but in the melanocratic the diamond content is more stable. Apparently, during stratification, melanocratic melts were located in the lower parts of magma chambers, where diamond crystals could submerge due to their high density. Lamproites differ from kimberlites in high concentration of titanium, potassium, phosphorus and some other elements. They are characterized by low contents of calcium, aluminum, sodium and extremely high contents of trace elements (Kononova et al., 2011). However, there are no significant differences between diamonds of these two types of magmatics. Despite the fact that the Argyle deposit has colossal reserves of diamonds and only about 5% of them can be used in the jewelry industry. The beauty of their colors from light yellowish (champagne) and greenish to pink and pinkish purple is striking (fig. 8). The fame of Argyle was because of pink crystals, recognized as the finest gemstones in the world, which became the brand of Argyle. In 1989, a 3.14-carat crystal was sold at a Christie's auction for $ 1.5 million. The Argyle company privately sells its diamonds at a price of up to $ 1 million per carat (Lamproites ..., 1991). It should be noted that 35 lamproite dikes and 9 lamproite explosion tubes were found on the Taimyr Peninsula. Several diamonds were found. Perhaps, in the future, another diamondiferous province will be discovered here. Fig. 7. Rough diamonds from lamproites from the Argyle pipe. A variety of crystalline forms are present, including a relatively small fraction of octahedra and a large number of rounded and shapeless formations. These crystals range in weight from about 0.5 to 1 carat, but most of them are less than 0.1 carat. Photo by James E. Shigley (Shigley et al., 2001). 3.6. Kimberlites Back in the early 19th century, A. F. Williams wrote: “… there are reservoirs of molten magma at some hypothetical unknown depth, which, due to changes in temperature and pressure, slowly crystallize and turn into deep ultra-basic (peridotite, pyroxenite and eclogite) rocks and diamond crystals” (Williams, 1932). In his opinion, crystallization and solidification of ultrabasic rocks, continued for a long time, during which the magma was thoroughly mixed until it acquired a kimberlite composition. Together with xenoliths of deep rocks, kimberlite magma carried diamond crystals to the Earth's surface. Almost a hundred years have passed, and the idea of the origin of diamonds has hardly changed. Fig. 8. Employees of the Rio Tinto company, which operates the Argyle diamond mine in Western Australia, found a rare pinkish-purple diamond (photo https://diamond-gallery.com.ua). Kimberlite is a rock with predominantly breccia-like texture and porphyritic texture. It looks like a bluish-gray breccia, which consists of fragments (xenoliths) of sedimentary rocks of the platform cover (limestones, sandstones, dolomites, etc.), crystalline fragments of the platform basement (gneisses, crystalline shales, etc.) and fragments of deep-seated magmatic formations (eclogites, garnet peridotites, etc.). The morphology of kimberlite pipes and their mineral composition are very diverse (Fig. 9). Usually kimberlites are represented by protomagmatic minerals (olivine, pyrope, chrome diopside, picroilmenite, phlogopite, diamond) and minerals of kimberlite melt (polycrystalline diamond - ballas or carbonado, olivine, phlogopite, perovskite, apatite, magnetite and diopside) and postmagmatic (serpentine, calcite, magnetite, chlorite, barite, sulfides). The distribution of diamonds in kimberlites is extremely uneven. Their average content in industrial pipes ranges from 0.17 to 8.09 carats per ton of rock, and it decreases with the depth of the pipe. Not all kimberlite pipes are diamondiferous and only 2-3% of them are of industrial value (Fig. 10). Fig. 9. Volumetric models of kimberlite pipes of the Yakutian diamond province: Pipe Mir: 1 - dikes composed of porphyry kimberlite; 2 - kimberlite breccia of the first phase of intrusion; 3 - kimberlite breccia of the second phase of intrusion; 4 - porphyritic kimberlites of the third intrusion phase; 5 - autolithic kimberlite breccia of the fourth intrusion phase. Pipe Udachnaya : 1 - porphyritic kimberlites of the first intrusion phase; 2 - kimberlite breccia of the second phase of intrusion; 3 - autolithic kimberlite breccia of the fourth intrusion phase; 4 - porphyritic kimberlites of the fourth intrusion phase; 5 - xenoliths of the sedimentary cover of the platform in kimberlite; 6 - zone of crushing of host rocks (according to Kostrovitsky et al., 2015 with changes). When kimberlite magma penetrated the earth's crust, it broke through the basement and sedimentary cover of ancient platforms and consolidated in the form of tubular bodies (diatremes), less often in the form of veins or dikes. The dip of the tubes is usually very steep and there is often a crater (caldera) at the top of the tubes. The diameter of the tubes varies from 40 to 60 m. Near the earth's surface, at a depth of about 200 m, the diatremes are funnel-shaped, the angles of incidence of the walls of which are from gentle (about 25°) at the top of the bell to steep at the bottom. Weakly eroded tubular bodies are often crowned with a crater filled with tuffaceous sedimentary formations. Sometimes tuffites and their varieties have industrial diamond content. The contacts of kimberlite pipes with the host sedimentary rocks are distinct, rarely gradual through the crushing zones. The more deeply, pipe-like bodies narrow, change shape, and blow out and turn into swelling dikes at a depth (usually 1000 m and more). Fig. 10. Morphology of diamonds in the Yakutian diamond province (Photo by A. Pavlushin, IGAiBM SB of RAS, Yakutia). According to the shape of the horizontal section, kimberlite pipes are divided into simple (round, oval) single-channel, complex (pear-shaped, dumbbell-shaped) two-channel, and very complex (lenticular with swelling or irregular shape) multichannel. The internal structure of kimberlite pipes is complex, due to the multiphase nature of their formation. Each phase was accompanied by the introduction of a certain variety of rocks (kimberlite breccias, tuff breccias, massive kimberlites, etc.), which differ from each other not only in structural and textural features and material composition, but also in the content of diamonds in them. Usually, diamondiferous rocks of one variety contain a stable amount of diamonds, while their content is distributed extremely unevenly throughout the pipe. And in some places there are areas of kimberlite rocks with substandard diamond content. Kimberlite rocks contain up to 50% of xenoliths of host rocks ranging in size from fractions of a millimeter to chunks and blocks. Kimberlite dikes and sills rarely form independent deposits and are found in South Africa and Canada (Snap Lake). Kimberlite dikes are steeply dipping bodies ranging from 1 to 5 km long and 1 to 180 m thick. The diamond content in dikes ranges from low to high, and the size of crystals is from medium to large. The Pipe Mir is one of the most famous kimberlite formations of the Yakutian diamondiferous province. It is a steeply dipping funnel-shaped body (0-600 m), below it is cylindrical. At a depth of about 1000 m, the diatreme sharply narrows and turns into a subvertical kimberlite dike. The diatreme is filled with kimberlite formations formed during the three-phase intrusion of kimberlite magma. According to S. I. Kostrovitsky (Kostrovitsky et al., 2015), kimberlite breccias of the first phase formed the northwestern half of the pipe, and kimberlite breccias of the second phase occupied the southeastern part of the pipe (Fig. 11). The third phase includes dyke-like bodies of porphyric kimberlites. Despite this, the rocks of different phases of introduction differ little from each other. They have the same physical and mechanical properties and the diamond content established during operation with a content of 8.09 carats per ton. According to the most widespread point of view, kimberlite diamonds crystallized in a static environment at a depth of about 150-250 km at a temperature of about 1200 °C and a pressure of at least 45 GPa. Their parent rocks were hyperbasites (chromium-pyrope dunites, harzburgites, and lherzolites) and mafic rocks (garnet pyroxenites and eclogites). The rise of kimberlite magma took place during the Middle Paleozoic (D3 – C1) tectonic-magmatic activation in an environment of stretching of the earth's crust (Akulov, 2003b). Fig. 11. Reference samples of kimberlites and xenoliths from various kimberlite pipes of the Yakutian diamondiferous province (after Kostrovitsky et al., 2015 with changes): a - kimberlite breccia with inclusions of garnet serpentinite (Mir pipe), b - kimberlite breccia (Udachnaya pipe), c - autolithic kimberlite breccia (Nyurbinskaya pipe), d - porphyric kimberlite (Yubileynaya pipe), e, f - eclogite inclusions of diamonds (pipe Mir). Apparently, the melt was characterized by a high content of the fluid phase. In near-surface conditions (at a depth of about 1–2 km), an explosion occurred due to the separation of volatile components, which contributed to the formation of kimberlite pipes (diatremes). In the process of near-surface crystallization of kimberlite, fine-crystalline aggregates were formed, which make up the bulk of the rocks of the second phase. Due to the action of a powerful fluid flow coming from the bowels through the formed channel of the pipe, autometamorphism took place with the formation of postmagmatic minerals of the third phase. Thus, kimberlite magma could only serve as a “transporter” for the transport of eclogites and diamonds to the Earth's surface (Anand and al., 2004). Fig. 12. View of the Mir pipe after the flooding of underground workings in the process of breaking through the mud-like water-mud-stone mass. Currently, the deposit is suspended. Photo: Sergei Subbotin (RIA Novosti). It should be noted that in 2001, at a depth of 525 m, open pit mining of diamondiferous kimberlites was suspended. And underground mining began, which continued until 2017, when (according to preliminary data) a water breakthrough occurred at the mine with the formation of mudflow-like mud-like water-mud-stone mass (Arkhipov, 2019). At that time, there were 151 people in the mine. 142 miners were promptly evacuated, and one more was rescued the next day. The search for the eight people remaining in the mine continued for several weeks, but to no avail. Then the search and rescue operations were stopped, and the deposit was suspended (Fig. 12). A detailed investigation showed that the mine was flooded due to the breakthrough of subpermafrost high-mineralized waters. At present, additional exploration of the deep horizons of the pipe continues and options for its further development are being worked out. In total, more than 4000 kimberlite and lamproite bodies have been identified in the Earth, of which about 500 contain diamonds. The main volume of production is provided by only 15 kimberlite and lamproite diamond deposits (Vaganov et al., 2002). The main criteria for the search for kimberlites in new areas are being actively developed (Protsenko et al., 2018), with great attention being paid to geochemical prospecting for kimberlites in closed areas (Tolstov et al., 2007; Simonenko et al., 2008; Sobolev et al. ., 2018). Various types of exogenous processes have been affecting various types of diamond-bearing formations for many millions of years, destroying and redeposing them, due to which numerous alluvial diamond deposits have been formed. The richest diamond placers were formed in the Yakutian diamond province (on the Irelyakh river, the "Vodorazdelnye galechniki" placer, placers in the Anabar region on the Ebelyakh, Billyakh, Mayat and other rivers) (Tolstov and Grakhanov, 2014; Tolstov et al., 2019).

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